THE  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

OF  i 

THE   UNITED  STATES  I 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2009  witii  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/importanttimbertOOelli 


VIRGIN  FOREST  OF  BALD  CYPRESS  GROWING  IN  SWAMP 

Note  conical  '■  knees  "  and  buttressed  base  ot  trees.  —  Copyrighted  by 
Clark  L.  Poole  <t  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


THE 

IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

A  MANUAL  OF 
PRACTICAL  FORESTRY 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

FORESTERS,   STUDENTS    AND    LAYMEN    IN 

FORESTRY,  LUMBERMEN,  FARMERS  AND 

OTHER  LAND-OWNERS,  AND  ALL  WHO 

CONTEMPLATE  GROWING  TREES 

FOR  ECONOMIC  PURPOSES 

BY 

SIMON  B.  ELLIOTT 

Member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Forestry  Reservation 

Commission  and  Associate  Member  of  the 

Society  of  American  Foresters 


BOSTON   AND    NEW   YORK 
HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1912,   BY   SIMON   B     ELLIOTT 
ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

Published  April  iqjs 


tBo  t\)t  ^emor^  of  m^  ^tfe 
3(1  SDroicate  t^iic;  Boob 


PREFACE 

The  sincere  but  mistaken  belief  that  our  forests  were 
inexhaustible  was  quite  a  natural  one.  Such  a  conclu- 
sion arose  from  their  vast  extent  and  vigorous  growth,  and 
when  a  cry  for  their  protection  and  conservation  was  heard, 
it  was,  at  first,  deemed  but  a  repetition  of  the  cry  of  "Wolf !  " 
in  the  fable,  and  was  unheeded.  In  the  beginning  the  cry 
was  very  faint  and  apparently  far  away  ;  but  it  grew  louder 
and  nearer  as  the  danger  of  irreparable  disaster  became 
more  imminent,  and  we  now  hear  it  in  strong  voice  and  on 
every  hand.  As  this  awakening  to  the  impending  danger 
has  become  widespread,  there  arises  in  the  public  mind  a 
strong  and  earnest  desire  to  know  (1)  whether  the  pro- 
ductive capacity  of  the  forests  of  our  country  is  adequate 
to  meet  the  demands  which  will  inevitably  be  made  upon 
them ;  and,  if  not,  (2)  whether  any  system  of  conserva- 
tion which  will  make  it  adequate  can  be  devised  and  ap- 
plied. Moreover,  the  public  desires  to  know  (3)  whether 
planting  new  forests  on  non-agricultural  land,  where  the 
axe  of  the  lumberman  and  successive  fires  have  destroyed 
all  valuable  tree-growth,  is  practicable ;  and,  if  so,  (4) 
what  species  of  trees  would  best  be  grown,  where  they 
should  be  planted,  and  how  they  can  best  be  propagated 
and  cared  for. 

A  comprehensive  answer  to  the  first  two  of  these  in- 
quiries must  take  cognizance  of  the  condition  of  existing 
forests  and,  likewise,  their  possible  future  productive  capa- 
city. Such  answer  should  show  whether  we  are  consuming 
our  forests  faster  than  they  grow  ;  and  whether,  under  any 
system  of  forest  management,  they  can  be  made  to  meet 
such  future  demands  as  the  inevitable  increase  of  popula- 
tion and  new  uses  for  forest  products  are  sure  to  bring 
about.  And  the  answer  to  the  last  two  will,  necessarily, 


viii  PREFACE 

comprise  and  set  forth  the  details  of  what  may  best  be 
termed  Practical  Forestry.  The  question  how  well  I  have 
met  these  inquiries  is  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  those 
who  will  peruse  the  following  pages. 

My  endeavor  has  been  to  make  the  work  a  Manual  of 
Practical  Forestry, —  indulging  in  theory  no  more  than  is 
necessary  to  show  the  basis  upon  which  theory  rests.  It  is 
not  claimed  that  a  study  of  this  volume  will  make  a  fully 
equipped  forester  ;  for  a  study  of  no  one  book  nor  of  all 
books  can  alone  do  that.  The  impossible  has  not  been  at- 
tempted. A  fully  endowed  forester  must  have  both  a  theo- 
retical and  a  practical  knowledge  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  tree-life,  and  to  this  should  be  added  broad  experience 
and  large  opportunities  for  observation,  covering  the  re- 
storation, productivity,  harvesting,  care,  and  perpetuation 
of  forests  grown  and  maintained  for  economic  purposes. 
The  average  person  who  may  desire  to  grow  trees  for  such 
use  cannot  devote  the  necessary  time  to  acquiring  as  full  a 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  forestry  as  the  expert  must 
possess.  Such  a  course  would,  for  him,  be  impracticable. 
It  is  claimed,  however,  that  by  a  careful  study  of  the  con- 
tents of  this  volume  one  may,  with  the  exercise  of  good 
judgment,  successfully  grow  trees  for  economic  purposes 
without  being  compelled  to  call  in  the  services  of  a  trained 
expert,  or  without  being  forced  to  roam  through  the  do- 
main of  botany,  dendrology,  and  silviculture,  or  to  master 
mensuration,  stem  analysis,  or  other  purely  technical  fea- 
tures of  scientific  forestry.  Not  that  experts  possessing  such 
knowledge  are  unnecessary,  for  they  are  necessary,  and 
the  country  cannot  do  without  them  any  more  than  it  can 
dispense  with  the  services  of  highly  educated  men  in  agri- 
culture, or  any  other  line  of  industry  on  which  the  welfare 
of  our  country  depends.  But  the  average  successful  farmer 
does  not  have  to  depend  wholly  upon  experts  in  agriculture 
successfully  to  carry  on  his  farming  operations,  although 
he  may  and  should  be  guided  by  their  teachings.  Neither 
should  he,  when  he  essays  to  grow  trees  for  his  own  use,  be 


PREFACE  ix 

compelled  to  call  in  the  services  of  an  expert  in  forestry ; 
nor  should  any  landowner,  when  he  desires  to  reclothe  his 
denuded  lands  with  valuable  species  of  trees,  be  unable  in- 
telligently to  direct  such  work. 

Technical  terms  are  avoided  wherever  possible,  but  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  identify  the  several  species,  for 
nearly  all  of  our  valuable  timber  trees  are  loaded  with  num- 
erous local  common  names, —  some  have  more  than  a  score, 
—  and  identification  would  be  impossible  without  the  use 
of  a  scientific  name  which  has  been  established  by  usage 
and  common  consent  and  adopted  by  all  recognized  author- 
ities. A  glossary  of  all  these  terms  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix,  on  a  page  devoted  to  that  purpose.  In  giving 
the  common  and  scientific  names  of  the  several  species  of 
trees  which  are  considered  worthy  of  consideration,  I  have 
followed  the  Check  List  of  the  Forest  Trees  of  the  United 
States,  by  George  B.  Sud worth,  Dendrologist  of  the  United 
States  Forest  Service,  as  the  one  which  should  be  accepted 
as  a  standard  of  authority.  In  no  other  case  is  a  technical 
term  used  where  there  is  a  substitute,  and  where  there  is 
no  substitute  the  meaning  of  the  term  is  explained. 

Perusal  will  disclose  the  fact  that  the  main  purpose  of 
this  volume  is  to  urge,  aid,  and  encourage  tree-growing  for 
economic  purposes  only,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
the  reader  will  ask  why  certain  species  now  being  largely 
used  have  been  deemed  of  enough  importance  to  be  de- 
scribed at  length  and  yet  are  not  recommended  for  cultiva- 
tion. The  answer  is  that  the  forests  of  the  future  must  be 
largely  grown  with  planted  trees,  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  plant  or  in  any  wise  grow  any  but  the  most 
suitable  and  valuable  ones  —  those  that  will  produce  the 
best  and  most  needed  forest  products  in  the  shortest  time, 
and  with  the  least  labor  and  expense  ;  and  such  only  have 
been  recommended.  AVe  now  accept  less  valuable  species 
because  they  are  present  with  us  and  they  have  cost  us 
nothing  to  grow.  Hereafter  it  will  cost  both  money  and 
labor  and  require  much  time  to  grow  forests,  and  in  the 


X  PREFACE 

not  distant  future  the  price  of  forest  products  will  be  based 
upon  the  cost  of  production.  If  White  Pine,  which  is  easily 
propagated,  will  grow  to  be  a  merchantable  tree  in  seventy- 
five  years,  and  a  Hemlock,  which  can  be  grown  with  diffi- 
culty, will  require  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  reach  the  same  dimensions, 
and  the  product  of  the  Pine  be  worth  twice  that  of  the 
Hemlock,  it  should  be  known,  and  when  known  there  would 
be  no  question  as  to  which  should  be  planted.  It  is  sometimes 
a  good  thing  to  know  what  not  to  do,  and  we  cannot  deter- 
mine which  species  are  best  adapted  to  cultivation  unless 
we  know  the  habits,  character,  and  comparative  value  of 
each.  There  are  enough  valuable  species  to  choose  from  and 
there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  choose  any  but  the  very 
best,  always  keeping  in  mind  the  demands  of  the  market, 
the  uses  the  wood  can  be  put  to,  the  adaptability  of  the 
tree  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  location,  and  the  rapidity  of 
growth  and  facility  of  production. 

Another  feature  may  cause  surprise  in  the  minds  of  some 
of  my  readers.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  some  of 
the  descriptions  of  trees  considered  do  not  agree  with  the 
reader's  personal  observation,  and  yet  such  descriptions 
may  well  fit  the  general  average  of  the  tree.  The  character 
and  general  appearance  of  trees  are  frequently  modified  to 
a  great  extent  by  location,  climate,  and  soil.  Trees  of  a 
given  species  grown  in  the  same  vicinity  will  often  vary 
in  form  and  sometimes  in  character  of  wood ;  therefore  a 
description  of  the  general  average  will  best  fit  the  case,  and 
to  give  such  has  been  my  endeavor. 

Much  time  and  labor  have  been  spent  in  the  preparation 
of  this  work,  and  while  it  is  largely  drawn  from  my  own 
personal  observations  I  feel  myself  greatly  indebted  to  the 
aid  which  others  have  generously  given  me.  I  would  gladly 
here  publicly  recognize  the  work  of  each,  but  they  are  too 
numerous,  and  I  content  myself  with  the  personal  acknow- 
ledgments which  I  have  given  by  letter  or  otherwise.  I 
have  endeavored  to  give  due  credit  to  aU  authors  from 


PREFACE  xi 

whom  I  have  consciously  copied.  Such  recognition  will  be 
found  in  its  appropriate  place.  I  must  not  fail,  however,  to 
recognize  here  the  value  of  the  services  and  courtesies  ex- 
tended to  me  by  the  Forest  Service  of  the  United  States, 
through  its  able  dendrologist,  Mr.  George  B.  Sudworth, 
and  also  to  extend  grateful  acknowledgments  for  the  use 
of  many  of  the  photographs  here  shown,  due  credit  being 
given  on  each.  I  take  great  pleasure  in  expressing  my  grat- 
ification at  the  approval  and  suggestions  of  Professor  F. 
W.  Rane,  State  Forester  of  Massachusetts,  to  whom  was 
submitted  the  manuscript  before  it  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  publishers.  Professor  Rane's  approval  is  of  moment, 
as  it  comes  from  one  of  the  most  pi-actical  foresters  in  the 
country. 

S.  B.  E. 

Reynoldsville,  Pennsylvania, 
April,  1912. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
I.  Introductory 3 

II.   Present  Condition  of  the  Forests      ....      8 

III.  Restoration  and  Treatment  of  Forests  ...    14 

IV.  Artificial  Restoration 22 

V.   Forest  Demands .    31 

VI.  Difficulties  of  Reforestation 38 

VII.  Planting  the  Forest      ........    43 

VIII.   Where  and  What  to  Plant 49 

IX.   When  to  Harvest 53 

X.   The  Woodlot 58 

XI.  Life-History  of  a  Tree 63 

XII.  Classification  and  Character  of  Wood  ...     79 

XIII.  The  Forest  Nursery 87 

XIV.  The  Transplant  Nursery Ill 

XV.  How  to  care  for  and  when  to  sow  Forest  Seeds  115 

XVI.  Tap-Root 119 

XVII.  When  to  Plant  Trees  in  the  Forest        .      .      .  121 

XVIII.   Spacing  Trees  in  the  Forest 123 

XIX.  Will  Planting  Forests  ever  become  Profitable?  126 

PART   II 

The  Pines .  133 

The  Spruces 178 


xiv  CONTENTS 

The  Firs 1S9 

The  Eastern  Firs 189 

The  Western  Firs 191 

Douglas  Fir, 199 

The  Hemlocks 203 

Red  Cedar 207 

White  Cedar 210 

Western  Red  Cedar 213 

Bald  Cypress 215 

The  Larches 219 

The  Sequoias 22G 

The  Oaks:  White  Oak  Class 231 

Red  Oak  Class 247 

The  Ashes 258 

The  Hickories 268 

The  Maples 276 

Yellow  Poplar 283 

Chestnut 286 

Black  Cherry .  291 

The  Elms 296 

Basswood 302 

The  Birches 306 

Beech 310 

Black  Walnut 313 

Butternut 317 

Locust 319 

Honey  Locust 323 

Cucumber 326 


CONTENTS  XV 

Sycamore 328 

The  Cottonwoods 332 

The  Gums 338 

The  Catalpas 344 

Eucalyptus 348 

Bkoadleaf  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope 351 

APPENDIX 

Glossary  of  Scientific  Names  of  Species  of  Trees     .      .  361 

Average  Height  of  Seedlings 364 

Approximate  Percentage  of  Germination  of  Tree  Seeds  366 
Number  of  Tree  Seeds  per  Ounce  and  Pound,  etc.    .      .367 

Index 369 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Virgin  Forest  of  Bald  Cypress  growing  in  Swamp    Frontispiece 

Destructive  Lumbering,  Elk  County,  Pennsylvania   .      .      6 

Red  Pine,  Forest-grown,  standing  on  Normal  School 
Grounds,  Marquette,  Michigan 6 

Virgin  Forest  of  White  Pine,  Clearfield  County,  Penn- 
sylvania   14 

Characteristic  View  in  the  Wiener-Wald,  Austria  .      .    24 

View  in  the  Forest  of  Prince  Bismarck,  Friedrichsruhe, 
Germany,  showing  Compartment  Line,  which  serves 
as  Fire  Line  and  Road 40 

An  Old  Plantation  of  Spruce  near  Eisenach,  Germany     40 

Second-Growth  White  Pine,  about  Thirty  Years  Old, 
Jefferson  County,  Pennsylvania 54 

Seedling  White  Ash,  One  Year  Old,  showing  Develop- 
ment OF  Tap-Root 64 

Spray  and  Staminate  Blossoms  of  White  Pine     ...    64 

Development  of  White  Pine  Seeds 64 

Section  of  a  White  Pine  Board,  showing  Annual  Rings    72 

Section  of  a  Joist  Cut  from  Old-Field  Pine,  showing 
Marked  Difference  between  Spring  and  Summer 
Wood 72 

Section  of  Red  Oak,  showing  Medullary  Rays  and  An- 
nual Rings 72 

Section  of  Carolina  Poplar,  showing  Annual  Rings,  In- 
termediate Rings  caused  by  Alternate  Wet  and  Dry 
Weather,  and  Irregularly  Shaped  Heartwood   .      .     72 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Section  of  White  Ash,  showing  Effect  of  Lack  of  Air 
AND  Moisture  for  Roots  on  One  Side       ....    72 

Naturally  Grown  White  Pine  Seedlings,  showing  Lack 

of  Fibrous  Root  Development 88 

Nursery-grown  White  Pine  Seedlings  and  Transplants, 
showing  Good  Root  Development 88 

Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Nursery,  Asaph,  Pennsyl- 
vania, SHOWING  Lath  Screens  over  Seedlings       .      .    96 

White  Ash  in  the  Experiment  Forest  Plantation  at  the 
State  University,  Champaign  County,  Illinois     .      .    96 

Ten-Year-Old  White  Pine  Planting  near  Mont  Alto,  on 
Pennsylvania  State  Forestry  Reservation.  Work  of 
Students  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy  136 

Typical  Idaho  Forest,  showing  Western  White  Pine, 
Larch,  and  Cedar,  Kaniksu  National  Forest  .      .      .  146 

Sugar  Pine,  Kings  River,  Fresno  County,  California  .      146 

Round,  or  Untapped,  Timber.  Virgin  Forest  of  Longleaf 
Pine,  Ocilla,  Georgia 154 

Loblolly  (Old-Field)  Pine,  Shannon  County,  Missouri     .  160 

Shortleaf  Pine,  Shannon  County,  Missouri     .      .      .      .160 

Virgin  Forest  of  Western  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir 

NEAR  Mount  Shasta,  California 170 

Scotch  Pine  in  Dense  Stand  on  Campus,  Iowa  State  Col- 
lege, Ames,  Iowa 176 

Douglas  Fir,  showing  Trees  more  than  Seven  Feet  in 
Diameter.    Western  Washington 200 

Virgin  Stand  of  White  Pine  and  Hemlock,  with  Second 
Growth  of  Each  coming  on  where  Original  Forest 
was  cut  off.     Clearfield  County,  Pennsylvania       .  204 

Virgin  Stand  of  Hemlock,  from  One  Hundred  and  Fifty  to 
Two  Hundred  Years  Old,  Tioga  County,  Pennsylvania  204 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

Bald  Cypress,  not  over  Seventy-five  Years  Old;  Twenty- 
NLNE  Inches  in  Diameter  Six  Feet  above  the  Ground 
AND  Eighty-four  Feet  High.  State  Capitol  Grounds, 
Harrisbdrg,  Pennsylvania 216 

Big  Trees,  -mTH  Sugar  Pine,  Western  Yellow  Pine,  and 

White  Fir,  Sierra  Nevada,  California       ....  226 

White  Oak,  Four  Feet  in  Diameter,  nearly  Fifty  Feet 
TO  First  Limb,  Fox  Estate,  Clarion  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania     234 

Big  Burr  Oak,  Gibson  County,  Indiana.    Circumference 

ABOVE  Swell,  Twenty-two  Feet 234 

Red  Oak,  Four  Feet  in  Diameter  and  more  than  Forty 

Feet  to  First  Limb.   Jefferson  County,  Pennsylvania  248 

Group  of  Hickories  :  Hicoria  glabra  and  Shagbark.  Mon- 
terey, Putnam  County,  Tennessee 270 

Sugar  Maple 278 

Yellow  Poplar  (Tulip-Tree),  Forest-grown,  Forty  Inches 

IN  Diameter,  Jefferson  County,  Pennsylvania    .       .  284 

Tulip-Tree,  GR0^^•N  in  the  Open,  Six  Feet  in  Diameter, 

MoNASKON,  Virginia 284 

Chestnut 288 

Black  Cherry,  North  Carolina 292 

White,  or  Gray,  Elm,  Charlevoix  County,  Michigan      .  290 

Basswood 302 

Beech 310 

Cucumber,  nearly  Five  Feet  in  Diameter,  in  Virgin  For- 
est, John  E.  DuBois  Estate,  Elk  County,  Pennsylvania  320 

Southern  Hardwood  Forest,  mainly  Red  Gum      .      .      .  342 


PART  I 


THE  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


INTRODUCTORY 

No  one  can  truthfully  deny  that  we  have  reached  a 
critical  period  in  our  country's  industrial  progress.  We 
have,  in  the  past,  been  loath  to  believe  that  we  were  even 
approaching  such  a  period,  for  we  have  indulged  in  the 
belief  —  and  many  still  hold  to  that  faith  —  that  our  natural 
resources  are  inexhaustible.  Observing  men,  however,  know 
that  such  a  conclusion  is  very  far  from  fact,  and  realize 
that  in  our  rapid  advance  in  material  progress  we  shall 
soon  be  face  to  face  with  the  practical  exhaustion  of  our 
important  natural  resources;  and  they  further  realize  that 
we  must  do  something  to  conserve  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
restore  such  resources  or  we  shall,  erelong,  be  overwhelmed 
with  irreparable  disaster. 

Fortunately  many  of  our  people  are  now  beginning  to 
see  the  absolute  necessity  for  conservation  and  they  are 
fast  coming  to  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that,  of  all  the  re- 
sources which  we  now  enjoy,  —  and  of  which  we  have  here- 
tofore thoughtlessly  boasted,  —  only  such  as  arise,  in  some 
form,  from  the  cultivation  or  use  of  the  soil  can  be  renewed 
when  once  exhausted.  It  is  now  becoming  well  understood 
that  the  time  will  come,  and  in  the  not  far  distant  future, 
when  our  coal,  oil,  gas,  and  other  valuable  minerals  will  be 
either  completely  exhausted  or  so  near  that  condition  as  to 
make  their  acquisition  difficult  and  expensive.  It  is  being 
further  comprehended  that,  like  other  products  of  the  soil, 
the  forests  which  we  still  possess  can,  with  proper  manage- 


4  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

ment,  be  maintained  in  useful  perpetuity,  and  in  many 
cases  their  productive  capacity  be  increased,  and  that  while 
we  are  consuming  their  annual  accretion  we  need  not 
necessarily  exhaust  them ;  and,  what  is  equally  important, 
it  is  likewise  realized  that  forests  can  be  grown  in  practi- 
cally all  sections  of  our  country  where,  in  our  early  history, 
they  once  grew  but  have  since  been  destroyed,  and  also 
even  where  there  is  no  proof  that  any  have  ever  existed. 
These  facts  give  vital  and  commanding  importance  to  that 
heretofore  neglected  feature  of  our  national  welfare  known 
as  "Practical  Foi-estry,"  a  feature  which  is  second  only 
to  agriculture  and  one  which  hereafter  must  go  hand  in 
hand  with  that  industry. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  there  is  a  growing  concep- 
tion of  the  actual  facts  relating  to  our  forest  conditions, 
notwithstanding  that  they  reveal  a  most  deplorable  state. 
We  have  come  to  understand  that  our  present  forests  will 
no  longer  be  capable  of  producing  the  vast  amount  of  use- 
ful products  which  will  be  demanded  of  them.  We  have 
learned  from  statistics  obtained  by  governmental  effort  that 
we  are  consuming  our  forests  more  than  three  times  as  fast 
as  they  grow,i  and  we  well  know  what,  if  not  arrested,  that 
will  lead  to.  It  is  largely  realized,  too,  that  many  new  uses 
for  forest  products  have  recently  sprung  up,  and  that,  through 
these  new  uses  and  the  rapid  increase  of  population  in  our 
country,  the  future  demands  for  forest  products  will  inev- 
itably be  greatly  increased;  and  all  must  see  that  if  such 
demand  cannot  be  promptly  and  fully  met  the  index  hand 
on  the  dial  of  progress  of  this  nation  will  advance  no 
further,  but,  instead,  go  backward. 

^  "  It  has  been  shown  that  the  present  annual  cut  of  forest  products  requires 
at  least  twenty  billion  cubic  feet  of  wood.  To  produce  this  quantity  of  wood 
without  impairing  the  capital  stock,  over  seven  hundred  million  acres  of 
forest  must  make  an  annual  increase  of  thirty  cubic  feet  per  acre.  Under 
present  conditions  of  mismanagement  and  neglect  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
average  annual  increment  is  less  than  ten  cubic  feet  per  acre  for  the  en- 
tire area.  This  means  that  each  year's  cut,  at  the  present  rate,  takes  the 
growth  of  more  than  three  years." — United  States  Forest  Service  Circular, 
No.  97,  page  14. 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

A  comprehension  of  all  tliis,  and  more,  is  surely  finding 
a  lodgment  in  the  minds  of  the  American  people  ;  and  the 
fact  is  fast  being  realized  that  the  thought  expressed  by- 
President  Roosevelt — when  he  declared,  in  substance,  that 
the  forest  problem  is  the  most  important  one  before  us  for 
solution  — was  not  only  true  in  every  sense  of  the  word  but 
was  timely  uttered.  The  growing  shortage  of  our  suppl}'  of 
forest  products,  the  rapidly  increasing  demands  for  such 
products,  our  cut-over,  burned-over,  and  fast-becoming- 
barren  lands,  the  disturbed  flow  of  our  springs  and  streams, 
and  the  erosion  of  the  soil  that  is  going  on  in  consequence 
of  the  destruction  of  the  forests,  are  conditions  patent  to 
all ;  and  these  conditions,  though  vocally  silent,  convey  to 
us,  in  a  language  that  we  cannot  fail  to  understand,  the 
importance  of  action  on  our  part.  They  all  point  to  the 
same  conclusion,  —  that  the  forests  should  be  restored  at 
the  earliest  possible  moment. 

The  duty  of  the  hour  can  be  summed  up  in  one  sen- 
tence :  a  supply  of  forest  products  must  be  maintained 
by  properly  caring  for  what  forests  are  left  us  and  by 
planting  others  where  necessary  to  meet  the  demand.  If 
we  do  not  do  this  the  end  of  our  nation's  prospei-ity  will 
soon  be  reached.  Every  day's  delay  adds  to  the  difficulties 
to  be  encountered. 

How  to  care  for  our  forests,  how  to  increase  their  pro- 
ductive capacity,  and  how  to  grow  new  ones  are,  unfortun- 
ately, problems  not  so  well  understood  by  the  people  of  this 
country  as  they  should  be ;  but  they  must  be  solved.  Few 
have  given  the  subject  —  more  properly  the  science,  for 
forestry  is  a  science  — the  careful,  intelligent  study  that  its 
importance  demands.  To  the  average  citizen  forestry  is  as 
a  "sealed  book."  He  knows  not  what  is  demanded;  but 
such  lack  of  knowledge  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  Until  re- 
cently there  has  not  been  felt  a  necessity  for  its  study. 
Nature  had  bounteously  provided  us  with  all  the  trees  that 
we  supposed  we  needed,  and  it  has  been  believed,  and  still 
is  believed  by  many,  that  she  can  be  depended  upon  to  con- 


6  mPORTANT   TIMBER  TREES 

tinue  in  that  work,  —  and  so  she  could  and  would  have 
done  had  we  not  interfered.  But  we  have  seriously  and  dis- 
astrously interfered.  Over  vast  areas  we  have  destroyed 
her  seed  trees  and  burned  up  her  young  growth.  Instead 
of  encouraging  forest  reproduction  we  have  thoughtlessly 
and  in  many  cases  maliciously,  prevented  it.  All  this 
must  come  to  an  end,  and  it  will  in  time,  but  there  is  great 
danger  that  it  will  not  until  dire  necessity  compels  it. 

Those  having  faith  that  we  shall  erelong  take  up  the  good 
work  of  reforesting  our  once  productive  but  now  barren 
timber  lands  naturally  turn  to  see  what  other  people  have 
done  in  that  line ;  and  the  first  thought  goes  out  to  such 
European  countries  as  have  now  attained  great  success  in 
growing  productive  forests.  Now,  it  is  true  that  we  can 
learn  much  from  their  experience,  but  it  is  equally  true 
that  we  must  largely  depend  upon  ourselves,  for  our  species 
of  trees,  our  climatic  conditions,  and,  largely,  our  soil,  differ 
from  theirs.  So  far  as  forest  conditions  go,  we  practically 
now  stand  where  European  nations  stood  two  hundred  and 
fifty  or  three  hundi*ed  years  ago,  and  of  their  experience  in 
reforestation  we  can  make  use ;  but,  like  them,  we  must 
build  from  the  bottom  up,  taking  from  the  experience  of 
others  such  practices  as  may  be  found  adapted  to  our  con- 
ditions. 

Realizing  all  this,  the  author  of  this  volume  has,  in  the 
following  pages,  given  the  results  of  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury's arduous,  earnest,  and  painstaking  study  and  observ- 
ation of  forests  and  forest  growth  which  prevail  in  this 
country,  both  as  a  student  in  forestry  and  as  a  practical 
lumberman  of  large  experience,  to  which  is  added  personal 
observation  of  some  of  the  best  European  forests  and  an 
experience  of  more  than  seven  years  as  a  member  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Forestry  Reservation  Commission.  This  study 
and  experience  has  forced  upon  him  the  conclusion  —  and 
it  is  positive  —  that  the  principal  effort  in  forestry  in  this 
country  must,  for  the  next  sixty  or  seventy  years,  be  directed 
to  tree-growing,  and  that  such  tree-growing  must  mainly  be 


DESTRUCTIVE  LU:MBERING:  LAST  YEAR'S  CUT 

Standing  forest  was  cut  this  year  and  fires  will  no  doubt  soon  follow.    Elk  County, 
Pennsylvania.  —  Photographed  by  Dr.  Uurjh  P.  Baker. 


KEU   PINE,   FUREST-GROWX 
Standing  on  Normal  School  grounds,  Marquette,  Michigan. 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

done  by  planting  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  in  the 
forest,  or  in  guowing  young  trees  in  nurseries  and  trans- 
planting them  where  they  are  to  grow  to  maturity  —  the 
latter,  except  in  the  case  of  nut-bearing  trees,  being  by  far 
the  best  system.  Extensive  tree-planting  in  some  form  is 
an  absolute  necessity  for  the  future  welfare  of  this  country. 
While  tree-growing  is  the  prominent  feature  of  this  vol- 
ume, it  is  deemed  advisable  to  give,  in  addition,  a  general 
view  of  the  condition  of  our  remaining  forests,  their  possibil- 
ities and  limits,  the  best  method  to  be  pursued  in  caring  for 
them,  and  other  matters  that  are  necessary  for  a  full  un- 
derstanding, by  the  plain  people,  of  the  fundamentals  which 
underlie  the  successful  growing  of  trees  for  economic  pur- 
poses. Such  knowledge  is  necessary  intelligently  to  deter- 
mine what  is  best  to  do  under  varying  circumstances  and 
conditions.  A  general  knowledge  of  how  forests  are  grown 
and  cared  for ;  the  natural  range  and  local  habitat  of  the 
several  important  timber  trees  of  our  country ;  what  treat- 
ment each  species  should  receive ;  the  character  and  uses 
of  the  wood  of  each  ;  the  difficulties  surely  to  be  encount- 
ered ;  and  the  peculiarity  and  characteristics  of  tree-life  and 
tree-growth  should  be  understood,  in  order  to  arrive  at  an 
intelligent  conclusion  as  to  what  and  where  to  plant.  If  the 
author  has  so  shown  all  this  that  it  will  be  readily  under- 
stood, and  if  what  is  herein  set  forth  will  stimulate  an  ef- 
fort to  grow  trees  and  thus  aid  in  saving  our  country  from 
irreparable  disaster,  then  his  aim  will  be  fully  accomplished. 


n 

PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  THE  FORESTS 

No  proof  should  be  demanded  to  show  that  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  forests  are  absolutely  essential  to  modern  civil- 
ization. Neither  should  it  be  questioned  that  a  civilized 
people  must  have  such  products  in  abundance  in  order  to 
strengthen  and  maintain  that  civilization.  That  the  supply 
should  be  ample  in  quantity  and  acceptable  in  quality  and 
character  is  undeniable ;  and,  furthermore,  it  needs  little 
proof  to  demonstrate  that  the  presence  of  forests  assures 
an  equable  flow  of  springs  and  streams,  and  that  in  the 
absence  of  that  equable  flow  there  are  destructive  floods  fol- 
lowed by  dry  stream-beds  and  disastrous  erosion  of  the  soil. 
Argument  to  show  all  this  would  be  superfluous ;  but  there 
are  other  features  of  the  forest  problem  which  are  not  so 
apparent  or  so  well  understood. 

In  former  times  the  lumberman  took  only  that  which 
would  make  merchantable  sawed  lumber,  and  small  stuff 
was  allowed  to  grow;  but  now,  between  the  lumberman, 
the  tie,  pole,  pulp,  and  acid  man,  practically  everything  is 
taken  and  the  ground  is  cleared  of  all  timber  growth  that 
can  ever  amount  to  anything.  No  seed  trees  are  left,  and  if 
fire  follows,  as  it  usually  does,  the  ground  becomes  a  barren 
waste.  Land  once  denuded  of  trees  and  other  vegetable 
growth  is  subject  to  inevitable  erosion  of  the  soil,  and  such 
erosion  destroys  not  only  the  hillside  and  mountain  slopes 
on  which  it  occurs,  but  fills  the  water  courses,  and  in  time, 
through  the  deposition  of  earth  brought  from  above  by  the 
water,  may  ruin  the  valleys  also.  Serious  erosion  renders 
natural  reforestation  impossible  and  makes  any  other  very 
difficult  and  expensive,  and  in  many  cases  entirely  prevents 
it ;  and  if  such  erosion  is  long  continued  it  leaves  the  re- 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  THE  FORESTS  9 

gion  no  better  than  Palestine  and  parts  of  southern  Europe 
now  are. 

It  is  believed  by  many  that  when  our  own  forests  are 
exhausted  we  can  go  to  other  countries  for  our  supply  of 
forest  products.  That  will  not  be  possible.  Our  neighbor, 
Canada,  must  retain  enough  for  her  own  use,  and  she  is 
bound  to  give  the  mother  country  what  surplus  she  may 
have,  for  Great  Britain  is  practically  destitute  of  product- 
ive forests,  although  at  this  writing  she  proposes  to  plant, 
at  great  expense,  no  less  than  9,000,000  acres  in  the  United 
Kingdom ;  and  much  of  the  expense  will  be  for  the  pur- 
chase of  agricultural  lands  for  forestry  purposes.  Already 
have  several  of  the  Canadian  provinces  prohibited  the 
exportation  of  pulp-wood  cut  on  crown  lands.  Of  all  Euro- 
pean countries  only  Russia  and  Norway  have  more  forests 
than  they  need,  but  the  area  of  forests  in  the  latter  country 
is  small.  Germany  imports  one  third  of  the  amount  of  wood 
consumed  within  her  borders,  notwithstanding  that  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  her  area  is  covered  with  productive  forests. 
France  has  eighteen  per  cent  of  her  domain  in  forest,  but 
this  produces  only  one  third  of  what  her  people  consume. 
Except  those  noted  none  are  growing  enough  forest  pro- 
ducts to  supply  their  own  wants,  and  civilized  nations 
should  recognize  the  fact  that  we  are  facing  a  world-wide 
timber  famine,  and  the  calamity  of  such  a  famine  will  come 
all  too  soon  unless  active  measures  shall  be  adopted  to  avert 
it ;  and,  what  is  more,  the  erosion  of  the  soil  —  in  part 
consequent  upon  the  denudation  of  the  forests  and  in  part 
caused  by  our  present  careless  and  imwise  system  of  culti- 
vation —  when  combined  with  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  all 
our  natural  resources,  most  prominent  among  which  are 
the  forests,  will,  if  continued,  render  this  globe  ill-fitted 
for  civilized  human  abode.  The  condition  of  our  own 
country  is  fairly  t^-pical  of  that  of  the  whole  civilized 
world.  It  is  discouraging  to  realize  that  this  country  of 
ours  will,  erelong,  reach  the  high-water  mark  of  its  pro- 
sperity, but  that  time  will  soon  come  unless  the  impending 


10  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

disaster  of  a  timber  famine  can  be  forestalled.  Our  down- 
ward course  will  begin  when  our  forests  fail  to  supply  our 
needs. 

But  supposing  it  were  possible  for  us  to  obtain  a  supply 
of  wood  products  from  abroad,  can  we  afford  to  put  the 
destinies  of  this  country  into  the  hands  of  other  nations 
simply  because  we  are  loath  to  do  our  duty  to  ourselves  and 
those  who  are  to  come  after  us  ?  A  nation  without  forests 
of  its  own  is,  undeniably,  a  weak  nation,  and  one  that  will 
be  at  the  mercy  of  those  possessing  them.  When  the 
world's  supply  of  coal  is  gone  —  and  it  is  estimated  that 
at  the  present  rate  of  consumption  two  hundred  years  will 
bring  about  the  practical  exhaustion  of  all  known  depos- 
its —  those  nations  possessing  a  full  and  continuous  supply 
of  forest  products  will  be  the  independent  nations  of  the 
world.  Neither  should  we  flatter  ourselves  that,  in  the 
event  of  a  failure  or  serious  shortage  of  supply,  some  sub- 
stitute for  forest  products  will  be  found  to  any  considerable 
extent.  The  enormous  quantities  required  and  the  various 
uses  wood  is  put  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  that.  It  is 
wood  that  we  need  and  wood  we  must  have  or  the  index 
hand  on  the  dial  of  progress  of  this  nation  will  go  back- 
ward never  again  to  return. 

Recent  governmental  publications^  show  the  amount, 
character,  and  cost  of  most  of  the  forest  products  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1909.  The  accompanying  table 
gives  the  product  of  48,112  sawmills  for  that  year.  This  is 
instructive,  as  it  names  the  species  of  trees  and  the  amount 
and  percentage  of  lumber  cut  from  each.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  thirty-one  species  named  yielded  99.9  per  cent  of  the 
whole,  while,  as  will  be  noted,  "  all  others  "  were  embraced 
in  the  remaining  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent.  The  first  five 
furnished  73.1  per  cent,  the  first  seven  supplied  80.4,  and 
the  first  ten  gave  86.9,  while  all  the  several  species  of  pine 

1  Forest  Products,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  0:  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
compiled  in  cooperation  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  :  Forest  Serv- 
ice. Henry  S.  Graves,  Forester.  Issued  April  11,  1911. 


PRESENT  CONDITION   OF  THE  FORESTS  11 

LUMBER.  1909 
Quantity  of  lumber  cut,  and  per  cent  of  distribtUion,  by  kinds  of  wood,  1909 


^ 

i.^ 

>.S 

to  ■§ 

Rank 

•-^' 

''^t^^ 

Kind  of  Wood. 

in  pro- 

1"^ 

^"1 

duction. 

a 

IS. 

Total 

_ 

44,509,761 

100.0 

Yellow  pine        ..... 

1 

16,277,185 

36.6 

Douglas  fir 

2 

4,856,378 

10.9 

Oak  ...... 

3 

4,414,457 

9.9 

"White  piue 

4 

3,900.034 

8.8 

Hemlock 

5 

3,051,399 

6.9 

Spruce        

6 

1,748,547 

3.9 

Western  pine 

7 

1,499,985 

3.4 

i\Iaple 

8 

1,100,604 

2.5 

Cypress 

9 

955,635 

2.1 

Yellow  poplar 

10 

858,500 

19 

Red  gum 

11 

706,945 

1.6 

Chestnut 

12 

663,891 

1.5 

Redwood 

13 

521,630 

1.2 

Beech         

14 

511,244 

1.1 

Birch 

15 

452,370 

1.0 

Basswood 

16 

399,151 

0.9 

Elm 

17 

347,456 

0.8 

Cedar         

18 

346,008 

0.8 

Hickory     ...... 

19 

333,929 

0.8 

Ash   ......         . 

20 

291,209 

0  7 

Cottonwood        ..... 

21 

265,600 

0.6 

Larch 

22 

264,022 

0.0 

Tamarack 

23 

157,192 

0.4 

Balsam  fir 

24 

108,702 

0-2 

Sugar  pine 

25 

97,191 

0.2 

Tupelo 

26 

96,676 

0.2 

White  fir 

27 

89,318 

0.2 

Sycamore 

28 

56,511 

0.1 

Walnut 

29 

46.108 

0.1 

Cherry        ...... 

30 

24,594 

0.1 

Lodgepole  pine           .... 

31 

23,733 

01 

Another 

- 

37,557 

0.1 

12  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

yielded  50.2  per  cent.  This  clearly  indicates  the  species  of 
trees  which  produce  the  kind  of  lumber  in  greatest  demand ;  a 
feature  which  should  not  be  overlooked  when  determining 
what  to  plant.  Although  hemlock  yielded  6.9  per  cent  of 
the  whole,  that  species  of  tree  will  be  practically  exhausted 
within  the  next  tifteen  or  twenty  years  or  sooner. 

In  addition  to  this  table  there  is  here  given  a  synopsis 
of  other  tables  ^  showing  the  several  products,  their  amount 
and  cost.  From  this  can  be  seen  the  large  demand  that  is 
made  upon  our  forests,  and  the  enormous  sum  of  money 
there  is  involved  in  exploiting  them.  This  synopsis  includes 
only  such  wood  as  is  used  for  the  purposes  named.  No  ac- 
count is  taken  of  wood  used  for  fuel,  or  for  round  timbers 
used  in  mines,  or  for  piles  and  other  like  purposes,  nor  for 
any  of  the  other  numerous  uses  to  which  wood  not  sawed  is 
put.  How  much  of  all  this  there  was  used  is  not  known, 
but  there  must  have  been  a  lai-ge  amount.^ 

The  use  of  species  heretofore  deemed  of  little  value  has 
been  seized  upon  by  those  who  scout  the  idea  of  a  timber 
famine,  as  showing  that  there  is  still  timber  for  all  pur- 
poses and  some  to  spare,  when,  in  fact,  this  new  supply  is 

1  Synopsis  of  "  Forest  Products  "  Reports,  showing  purposes,  amount,  and 

cost  of  the  wood  used  in  the  industries  named 
No.  of  Report  Industry  and  Amount  Cost 

1  Pulp- wood,  4,001,607  cords  .        .  .      534,477,540 

2  Sawed  lumber,  44,509,761,000  board  feet  .       684,479,859 
2                  Shingles,  14,907,371  thousand     .         .  .         30,262,462 

2  Lath,  3,703, 195  thousand    ....  9,963,439 

3  Slack  cooperag-e,  board  feet  not  given         .  20,195,125 

4  Tanbark,  1,022,435  tons       ....  9,968,710 

5  Veneers,  435,981,000  feet,  log  scale     .         .  8,977,516 

6  Tight  cooperage,  board  feet  not  given         .  3,716,296 

7  Distillation,  1,149,847  cords         .         .         •  3,818,282 

8  Cross-ties,  123.751,000         ....  60,320,700 

9  Poles,  3,738,740 7,073,826 

Total       .......    $873,253,755 

2  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Report  No.  10,  Department  of  Labor,  1908, 
shows  that  the  wood  used  around  the  farm  alone,  such  a*  poles,  posts,  rails, 
and  the  like,  when  added  to  the  wood  used  for  fuel  throughout  the  coun- 
try,—  two  thirds  of  the  people  use  wood  for  fuel,  —is  equivalent  in  value 
to  thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  forest  product. 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  THE  FORESTS  13 

only  a  temporary  relief  and  would  not  be  used  were  not 
the  better  species  nearing  exhaustion.  Like  the  others 
these  less  valuable  species  will,  in  due  time,  be  exhausted  — 
and  that  day  is  not  far  distant  —  and  what  then?  Because 
we  can  and  do  use  inferior  woods  shall  we  conclude  that 
these,  too,  cannot  be  exhausted?  It  is  fortunate  that  we 
can  use  them,  and  we  should  take  advantage  of  that  use 
while  they  last,  and  grow  better  ones  in  their  stead.  In 
whatever  direction  we  turn  we  shall  see  that  the  future  of 
our  timber  supply  is,  at  best,  precarious,  and  that  only  by 
growing  new  forests  can  we  save  posterity  from  our  greed 
and  negligence. 

Probably  our  forests  are  in  no  worse  condition  to-day 
than  were  those  of  Germany  and  France  two  hundred 
years  ago,  when  those  nations  began  reforestation.  Success 
crowned  their  efforts  and  should  ours,  if  we  put  forth  the 
same  endeavors.  It  is  true  that  our  civilization  demands 
more  wood  per  capita  than  has  ever  before  been  consumed 
by  any  other  people ;  but  that  shows  the  need  of  greater 
effort.  However  desperate  our  case  may  appear  to  be,  there 
is  one  thing  to  encourage  us :  European  forests  have  been 
restored  and  made  productive,  and  so  may  ours  be,  espe- 
cially as  we  are  blessed  with  more  valuable  species  than 
they  possess. 


Ill 

RESTORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  FORESTS 

There  are  now  to  be  found  practically  two  classes  of 
forests  in  the  United  States.  One  of  these  is  known  as 
"  Virgin  Forest,"  —  the  poet's  "  forest  primeval,"  — 
where  the  full  stand  of  trees  planted  by  Nature  still  exists, 
and  would,  if  not  interfered  with,  be  by  her  constantly 
maintained.  The  other  is  composed  of  such  growth  as  may 
have  been  left  by  the  lumberman  after  he  has  taken  all  he 
desired,  —  and  with  no  thought  of  reproduction,  —  to- 
gether with  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  grow  since  the 
removal  of  the  more  valuable  portion.  This  class  is  called 
"Second-Growth  Forest."  The  areas  covered  by  the 
latter  class  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "Cut-over,"  or 
"  Stripped"  lands.  When  considering  the  increase  of  pro- 
ductive forests  there  can  very  properly  be  placed  with  this 
class  such  non-agricultural  areas  as  were  once  covered  with 
forests,  but  which  have  been  repeatedly  burned  over  and 
all  valuable  species  of  trees  destroyed,  and  which  are 
now  practically  barren  wastes,  containing  little  or  no  tree- 
growth  that  can  ever  become  valuable.  If  left  to  the  slow 
processes  of  unaided  Nature  they  will  not  be  reforested 
with  valuable  species  in  a  thousand  years,  if  ever.  The 
area  of  virgin  forests  is  far  less  than  that  of  the  other  and 
it  is  being  constantly  and  rapidly  reduced ;  and  from  these 
virgin  forests  must  our  main  supply  of  forest  products  be 
drawn  until  others  are  grown.  Through  judicious  and  con- 
servative management,  as  elsewhere  indicated,  the  capacity 
of  our  virgin  forests  may  be  increased  to  some  extent,  but 
the  claim  that  it  can  be  increased  threefold  (see  page  4), 
no  careful  student  of  forest  problems  wiU  concede.  Look- 
ing at  the  problem  of  a  future  supply  from  any  standpoint 


RESTORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  FORESTS     15 

we  may  choose,  we  are  confronted  with  the  absolute  need 
of  increasing  the  productiveness  of  our  virgin  forests  by 
conservative  treatment,  and  the  equal  need  of  making  the 
second-growth  areas  productive  by  caring  for  such  valuable 
species  as  now  exist  there,  and  also  by  planting  where  none 
are  to  be  found ;  and  this  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of 
the  treatment  of  all  forests. 

Action  along  either  of  these  lines  —  increasing  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  present  forest  area  and  enlarging  that  area 
over  regions  where  trees  once  grew  but  have  been  destroyed 
—  may,  in  general  terms,  be  called  Practical  Forestry, 
a  science  quite  new  to  this  country  and  but  little  under- 
stood by  the  greater  proportion  of  our  people.  Still,  there 
is  nothing  abstruse  in  it,  nothing  difficult  to  understand. 

But  if  we  cannot  increase  the  productiveness  of  our  vir- 
gin forests  threefold,  what  can  be  done  along  that  line  ? 
This  cannot  be  definitely  answered,  owing  to  varying  for- 
est conditions,  but  some  increase  can  be  brought  about, 
though  the  limit  will  necessarily  soon  be  reached.  In  tree- 
life,  as  in  all  other,  there  is  an  age  reached  which  we  call 
maturity.  When  a  tree  arrives  at  that  period  its  best  eco- 
nomic development  is  secured.  Thenceforth  there  is  a  de- 
cline until  death  wipes  it  out  of  existence.  When  trees  are 
mature  they  should  be  removed  and  give  room  for  others 
to  grow  in  their  places.  All  the  time  embraced  in  the  life 
of  a  tree  from  maturity  until  it  falls  to  the  ground  is  just 
that  much  time  lost  in  the  use  of  the  land  which  it  occu- 
pies. Removing  such  mature  trees  as  are  not  required  to 
produce  seed  for  a  future  growth  is  known  as  Selective 
Cutting  —  sometimes  called  Conservative  Cutting. 

If  there  should  be  found  immature  trees  of  valuable 
species  interfering  with  each  other,  the  weakest  should  be 
removed,  as  should  also  all  diseased  ones  of  any  kind.  If 
badly  developed  trees  or  those  of  worthless  species  occupy 
any  portion  of  the  ground,  these,  too,  should  be  cleared 
away,  unless  they  will,  for  a  time,  serve  as  "  nurse  trees  " 
to  compel  the  valuable  ones  to  grow  tall  and  free  of  limbs. 


16  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Such  work  is  termed  Improvement  Cutting.  Thus  by 
selective  and  improvement  cutting  man  can  prevent  the 
waste  of  time  Nature  indulges  in  and  thereby  increase  the 
productiveness  of  the  forest.  That  is  about  all  that  can  be 
done  along  this  line  with  virgin  forests,  but  it  should  be 
rigidly  carried  out  if  conditions  do  not  indicate  that  the 
whole  stand  should  be  removed  and  a  new  forest  planted, 
a  point  which  will  be  discussed  later  on.  But  no  treatment 
of  virgin  forests  can  be  depended  upon  to  increase  ma- 
terially the  area  of  productive  forests,  and  that  is  what  is 
absolutely  necessary  in  this  country. 

All  will  agree  that  land  suitable  for  agriculture  should 
be  reserved  for  that  purpose ;  but  it  is  equally  true  that 
land  not  so  suited,  and  which  has  once  borne  a  crop  of 
trees,  can  and  should  once  more  be  devoted  to  that  use; 
and  there  is  a  large  area  of  that  kind  of  land  in  this  coun- 
try. Reclothing  such  land  with  trees  is  called  Reforesta- 
tion. It  embraces  replacing  trees  that  have  been  removed 
from  a  forest  for  any  cause ;  and,  likewise,  contemplates 
sowing  seed  or  planting  young  trees  in  a  forest,  whether 
virgin  or  second-growth,  where  too  few  exist  for  profit ;  or 
where  those  standing  are  of  undesirable  species ;  and  it 
also  includes  a  complete  restoration  of  tree-growth  by  sow- 
ing or  planting  seeds  or  trees  on  any  barren  land  where 
trees  once  grew,  or  can  be  made  to  grow.  When  depend- 
ence is  placed  on  Nature  to  sow  the  seed  for  renewal  the 
system  is  known  as  Natural  Reforestation;  and  when 
man  aids  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  trees,  so  that  Na- 
ture may  sow  seed  where  it  will  have  a  chance  to  grow,  or 
he  himself  sows  the  seed  or  plants  the  trees,  the  scheme  is 
very  properly  called  Artificial  Reforestation. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  are  substantially  two 
methods  of  reforestation ;  one  by  natural  processes  alone, 
and  the  other  largely,  or  entirely,  through  the  instrument- 
ality of  man.  The  former  is  the  one  by  which  Nature 
brought  forth  the  virgin  forests  and  by  which  she  would 
perpetuate  them  if  allowed  to  do  so.  She  grows  and  ripens 


RESTORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  FORESTS     17 

the  seeds  and  provides  means  for  their  distribution.  To  the 
seeds  of  most  trees  she  gives  wings,  that  they  may  travel 
on  the  winds  and  find  a  home  far  away  from  the  parent 
tree ;  while  she  leaves  the  task  of  scattering  some  to  the 
birds,  squirrels,  and  other  animals,  and  trusts  to  varying 
chance  and  opportunity  their  subsequent  life  and  growth. 

NATURAL   REFORESTATION 

To  understand  fully  the  results  which  are  likely  to  ensue 
from  natural  reforestation  it  will  be  well  to  study  the  his- 
tory of  an  average  forest.  Naturally,  as  stated,  trees  spring 
from  seed,  grow,  reach  maturity,  become  old,  die,  decay, 
and  Nature  arranges  for  others  to  take  their  places.  If  the 
seeds  are  ready  to  fall  in  the  place  of  fallen  trees,  or  other- 
wise unoccupied  ground,  and  conditions  are  such  that  the 
seeds  will  germinate,  and  the  surroundings  are  such  that 
the  young  trees  can  triumph  in  their  struggle  with  other 
growths  of  the  soil,  or  sprouts  come  from  those  that  are 
growing  old,  then  natural  and  profitable  reforestation 
will  take  place  in  good  time ;  but  if  the  seed  is  not  ready 
at  the  right  time,  or  the  conditions  are  not  favorable,  then 
the  seeds  of  worthless  species  may,  and  almost  invariably 
will,  come  and  occupy  the  ground  and  a  valueless  forest 
will  be  the  result.  The  same  thing  may  occur  when  a  por- 
tion of  the  trees  are  removed  by  man,  with  the  additional 
chance  of  failure  through  the  removal  of  seed-bearing 
trees,  or  injury  to  those  left  standing  through  the  removal 
of  the  others. 

Besides  this  the  valuable  species  of  trees  in  a  given  for- 
est may  all  be  ripe  and  fit  to  be  removed,  and  actual  loss 
occur  if  any  of  them  are  allowed  to  stand  longer ;  or  they 
may  be  few  in  number  and  surrounded  with  worthless 
ones.  To  remove  all  the  valuable  ones  in  either  case  would 
preclude  the  possibility  of  natural  reforestation  with  valu- 
able species  ;  and  to  remove  the  worthless  ones,  or  a  large 
portion  of  the  others,  might  prove  disastrous  because  of  the 
inability  of  those  left  to  endure  their  changed  surround- 


18  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

ings.  In  either  event  worthless  species  would  be  almost 
certain  to  spring  up  and  the  whole  character  of  the  forest 
liable  to  become  changed.  The  second-growth  forests  of 
the  country  attest  that  fact.  It  is  seldom  that  a  cut-over 
forest  consists  of  the  original  species.  This  may  occur, 
however,  where,  as  in  some  sections,  such  trees  as  Redwood, 
Chestnut,  and  some  of  the  Oaks  throw  up  sprouts  from 
roots  and  stumps.  A  Chestnut  forest  can  be  depended  upon 
to  reproduce  itself  naturally  with  a  good  deal  of  certainty, 
but  in  a  few  generations  of  sprouts  the  root  system  becomes 
80  weakened  by  cutting  that  seed-grown  trees  must  be  sub- 
stituted. Moreover,  sprout  trees  seldom  attain  a  large  size 
if  allowed  to  grow.  The  decay  which  takes  place  in  the 
stump  affects  their  vitality. 

There  is  another  important  feature  which  should  be  con- 
sidered when  deciding  upon  the  method  of  perpetuating  a 
forest ;  and  that  is  its  productive  capacity.  The  appended 
table  ^  shows  the  net  annual  revenue  that  is  derived  from 
nearly  all  European  forests,  and  also  from  those  of  the  United 
States,  the  revenue  being  necessarily  based  upon  the  yield. 
The  first  eight  countries  named  follow  artificial  methods  of 
reproduction  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  first  four 
—  Wiirttemberg,  Saxony,  Baden,  and  Hesse  —  carry  it  on 
intensively,  while  the  remainder  of  the  list  shows  the  rela- 
tive care,  or,  rather,  lack  of  care,  given  to  their  forests  by 
man,  our  own  country  showing  a  deplorable  negligence. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  natural  regeneration  re- 
quires a  much  larger  area  to  be  devoted  to  tree-growing 
than  would  be  necessary  to  produce  the  requisite  amount 
of  lumber  if  artificial  reproduction  should  be  depended  upon. 
Had  we,  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago,  set  aside  as  much  forest 
area  as  could  have  been  spared,  and  treated  the  whole  in  a 
conservative  manner,  conditions  would  be  far  different 
from  what  they  are  now. 

^  The  annual  yield  of  our  forests  is  far  less  than  those  of  Europe  where 
they  are  maintained  through  artificial  methods.  There  the  average  yield  is 
forty  cubic  feet  per  acre ;  oura  does  not  exceed  twelve  feet.  Some  Prussian 


RESTORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  FORESTS     19 


Furthermore,  the  practice  of  cutting  the  mature  and 
leaving  the  immature  trees  must  necessarily  bring  about 
a  very  irregular  harvest.  Trees  left  at  the  first  cutting  will 
quite  likely  be  of  all  sizes  from  seedlings  up  to  a  size 
nearly  large  enough  to  cut,  and  the  periods  of  their  ma- 
turity will  vary  accordingly.  This  will  compel  frequent 
cuttings  with  varying  yield.  Therefore  roads  must  be  kept 
up  and  mills  with  appliances  for  manufacture  be  main- 
tained with  but  small  product.  Such  a  system  would  do  well 
for  the  farmer's  woodlot,  but  would  not  be  profitable  as  a 
lumbering  proposition. 

Finally,  and  by  no  means  the  least  serious  drawback  to 
selective  cutting  and  natural  seed-sowing,  is  the  probable 
failure  of  seeds  to  bring  forth  trees,  even  if  they  fall  in 
abundance  in  suitable  places  and  at  the  right  time,  all  of 

forests  yield  seventy  cubic  feet.  The  following  table,  copied  from  United 
States  Forest  Service  Circular,  No.  140,  entitled  "  What  Forestry  has  Done," 
will  show  the  net  revenues  received  by  European  countries,  and  also  the 
annual  expenditures :  — 

Expenditures  and  revenues  of  national  forests,  showing  higher  productiveness 
under  larger  expenditures  ^ 


Wiirttemberg 

Saxony 

Baden 

Hesse 

Switzerland 

Prussia  . 

Bavaria  . 

France    . 

Italy 

Hungary 

Austria  . 

Roumania 

Spain 

Sweden  . 

Russia    . 

United  States 


1905-6 
1906-7 


Total  net 

revenue 

Expenditure 

from  Govern- 

per acre 

ment  forests. 

$3,098,428 

$2.05 

2,299,000 

3.00 

829,162 

3.58 

744,209 

1.25 

237,663 

1..32 

17,054,144 

1.58 

5,128,348 

1.99 

4,737,250 

.95 

_ 

.34 

5,313,000 

.56 

482,600 

- 

1,677,672 

.02 

21,500,000 

.01 

2  12,000 

.007 

128,659 

.0093 

Net  revenue 
per  acre 


$6.60 
5  30 
4.42 
4.29 
2.55 
2.50 
2.22 
1.75 


.21 

.18 
.17 
.09 
.032 
2.0001 
.00086 


Prepared  from  the  latest  available  data. 


20  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

which  is  very  uncertain.  If  they  fall  in  the  deep  shadow 
of  the  remaining  trees,  or  among  bushes,  weeds,  brush,  or 
other  stuff,  they  are  deposited  where  germination  is  very 
uncertain  and  infant  tree  life  nearly  impossible.  At  best 
they  may  fall  on  a  forest  floor  the  top  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  leaves  in  only  a  partial  state  of  decay.  If  enough 
moisture  is  found  there  to  induce  germination  there  is  no 
mineral  soil  close  by  for  the  tender  rootlet  to  enter  and 
secure  moisture  and  food,  and  a  few  days  of  dry  weather 
will  kill  the  little  plants  outright.  Unless  mineral  soil  can 
be  reached  soon  after  the  seed  bursts  into  life,  or  the  seed- 
bed be  kept  continually  moist,  the  life  of  the  plant  is  very 
uncertain.  With  nearly  all  of  our  timber  trees  mineral  soil 
is  necessary  to  support  life  in  infancy  as  well  as  later  on. 
A  careful  examination  of  the  area  underneath  the  crown 
of  a  seed-bearing  tree,  even  in  a  comparatively  open  forest, 
will  show  how  few  seeds  bring  forth  plants.  If  the  weak 
root  is  compelled  to  work  its  way  down  through  the  par- 
tially decomposed  leaves  to  mineral  soil,  or  the  miniature 
stem  compelled  to  encounter  undecayed  leaves  in  its  efforts 
to  grow  upward,  the  chances  are  more  than  a  hundred  to 
one  that  failure  will  result.  Millions  of  seeds  may  fall  and 
not  one  produce  a  tree.  From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  are  great  uncertainties  connected  with  natural  re- 
forestation, and  wisdom  demands  that  these  uncertainties 
be  recognized  and  guarded  against. 

It  is  true  that  natural  reforestation  is  Nature's  method, 
and  it  is  cheerfully  admitted  that  in  some  cases  it  is  the  best 
way,  and  when  it  is  it  should  be  followed ;  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  is  recommended  in  many  cases  when  discussing 
the  best  methods  of  propagating  certain  species ;  but  un- 
less the  conditions  and  the  character  of  trees  and  sur- 
roundings are  exceptional,  it  will  be  found  far  more  likely 
to  fail  than  otherwise.  If  adopted,  care  must  be  taken  that 
succeeding  crops  do  not  "grow  smaller  by  degrees  and 
beautifully  less." 

Accepting,  then,  the  conclusion  that  we  cannot,  to  any 


RESTORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  FORESTS     21 

great  extent,  depend  upon  natural  processes  for  such  resto- 
ration of  our  forests  as  will  enable  them  to  produce  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  forest  products,  we  must  turn  to  some 
other  method  whereby  we  can  in  some  way  aid  Nature  ;  and 
when  we  accept  that  fact  and  act  upon  it  we  shall  engage 
in  practical  forestry  with  reasonable  hope  of  success.  We 
well  know  that  our  forest  conditions  are  quite  unlike  those 
in  European  countries,  but  ours  are  practically  the  same 
as  were  theirs  two  hundred  years  ago.  Since  success  has 
crowned  their  efforts,  why  may  not  the  same  results  occur 
here?  It  needs  no  argument  to  show  that  the  principles 
which  underlie  tree-culture  are  alike  everywhere  ;  therefore 
we  should  by  no  means  conclude  that  we  are  in  the  dark. 
We  have  before  us  the  results  of  two  centuries  of  European 
experience  and  we  certainly  should  profit  by  that  experi- 
ence wherever  it  is  applicable  to  our  conditions  and  climate. 
We  are  at  the  "  parting  of  the  ways."  One  road  —  and 
it  is  the  one  we  have  been  following  —  will  lead  us  to  the 
same  estate  that  prevails  in  western  Asia  and  much  of 
northern  Africa  and  southern  Europe  —  a  condition  of 
dreary  desert.  If  the  other  is  followed,  the  shorn  and  tree- 
less hills  and  mountains  of  our  country  may  again  be  cov- 
ered with  forests,  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  be  restored, 
our  springs  and  streams  once  more  be  flowing  in  their  for- 
mer uniform  fullness,  and  our  economic  needs  of  forest 
products  be  amply  supplied.  There  is  no  middle  road  to 
take  and  reach  success.  Our  forests  are  too  near  exhaustion 
to  depend  upon  natural  reforestation.  Either  they  will  go 
the  way  of  all  neglected  forests,  leaving  this  land  ill 
adapted  to  the  abode  of  civilized  man,  or  restoration 
through  man's  efforts  must  be  brought  about.  We  are  in 
no  condition  to  defy  the  experience  of  others,  or  adopt 
theories  not  based  on  practical  common  sense.  Mistakes  in 
forestry  are  so  long-lived  that  the  errors  of  one  generation 
are  handed  down  to  another.  If  ever  the  sins  of  the  fathers 
will  burden  their  children  they  will  in  this  case,  if  we  com- 
mit them. 


IV 

ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 

Besides  Natural  Reforestation  brought  about  by  the 
system  of  Selective  Cutting,  already  discussed,  there  may 
be  named  Strip  Seeding,  Spot  Seeding,  Broadcast 
Sowing,  Planting  in  Hills,  and  Growing  Trees  in  a 
Nursery  and  transplanting  them  into  the  forest,  all  of 
which  are  embraced  in  Artificial  Reforestation.  Some 
one  of  these  methods  is  adapted  to  every  locality,  but  all 
may  not  be  to  any  one. 

Strip  Seeding.  In  carrying  out  this  plan  the  entire 
stand  of  trees  is  cut  from  a  narrow  strip  at  the  side  of  a 
forest  which  is  old  enough  to  bear  an  abundant  crop  of 
seed,  choosing  that  side  which  is  opposite  to  the  prevailing 
winds.  This  operation  is  termed  "  clean  cutting."  The 
expectation  is  that  by  thus  locating  the  ground  to  be  seeded, 
Nature,  through  the  agency  of  the  winds,  will  sow  the  seeds. 
This  may  or  may  not  occur,  however,  as  there  may  be  little 
or  no  wind  when  the  seeds  are  ripe  and  falling,  or  it  may 
blow  in  the  wrong  direction.  But  if  seeding  does  occur  it 
will  not  be  uniform,  for  some  seeds  will  be  carried  farther 
than  others.  Much  will  depend  upon  the  velocity  of  the 
wind.  At  best,  it  will  be  uneven,  as  more  seed  will  fall 
next  to  the  parent  trees  than  elsewhere.  Consequently,  in 
order  to  secure  an  even  stand,  whereby  the  land  will  be 
made  to  produce  the  greatest  yield  possible,  there  will  be 
more  or  less  work  to  be  done  in  thinning  in  places  where 
the  young  trees  are  too  numerous  and  planting  where  there 
are  too  few. 

If  no  seeding  occurs  the  year  the  trees  are  cut,  delay 
must  ensue  until  another  seed  year  comes  around,  which, 
with  conifers,  may  not  occur  for  several  years,  —  on  an  av- 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION  23 

erage  not  oftener  than  once  in  five  years,  —  thus  delaying 
reforestation.  Of  course  it  will  be  seen  that  this  system  is 
suitable  for  only  such  species  of  trees  as  have  winged  seeds. 
The  width  of  the  strip  cut  should  not  exceed  twice  the 
height  of  the  trees  unless  the  ground  slopes  rapidly  away 
from  those  left  standing,  as  in  that  case  the  seeds  would  be 
carried  farther  than  if  on  the  level  or  uphill.  Examination 
should  be  made  of  the  trees  to  be  left  standing  to  ascertain 
if  they  will  furnish  seed  the  year  that  it  is  proposed  to  cut 
the  timber.  If  it  is  not  evident  that  seed  will  be  forthcom- 
ing at  the  right  time,  delay  in  cutting  must  take  place,  for 
if  cutting  is  not  followed  the  same  year  by  seeding,  failure 
will  be  very  apt  to  result  through  a  growth  of  sprouts,  shrubs, 
weeds,  or  from  some  worthless  species  of  trees  springing 
wp,  and  these  may  be  so  far  advanced  when  seeding  does 
occur  that  germination  cannot  take  place,  or,  if  it  does,  the 
young  trees  will  be  suppressed.  To  insure  germination  the 
surface  of  the  strip  is  sometimes  gone  over  with  some  im- 
plement that  will  scarify  it  and  expose  the  mineral  soil  for 
the  seeds  to  fall  into.  However  satisfactory  this  system 
may  prove  in  certain  cases,  it  is  not  practiced  to  any  great 
extent  in  European  countries.  In  Saxony,  where  are  the 
most  perpetually  productive  forests  in  the  world,  in  an  av- 
erage annual  reforestation  of  sixty-nine  hundred  acres  only 
eight  hundred  are  from  seed  sown  by  this  method.  Yet 
there  is  no  question  but  that  it  may  serve  a  good  purpose 
in  some  situations,  and  especially  so  with  such  conifers  as 
are  frequent  and  prolific  seeders.  On  rough,  rocky,  or 
swampy  ground  where  planting  young  trees  would  be  diffi- 
cult this  system  may  prove  the  best  of  any.  Of  course  it  is 
obvious  that  in  all  cases  where  natural  scattering  of  seeds 
is  to  be  depended  upon,  the  species  of  trees  to  be  grown 
must  be  that  of  the  stand  from  which  they  come,  and  if  the 
parent  forest  is  of  mixed  species  much  must  depend  upon 
whether  all  will  bear  seed  in  the  same  year,  and,  if  so, 
whether  all  will  be  scattered  alike.  In  short,  there  can  be 
no  satisfactory  control  of  species  likely  to  occur.  In  this 


24  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

respect  it  is  no  better  than,  if  as  good  as,  that  which  may 
result  from  selective  cutting,  for,  under  that  system,  unde- 
sirable species  may  be  removed  before  seed-sowing. 

Spot  Seeding.  Still  another  method  of  aiding  Nature 
in  sowing  seeds  prevails  to  a  certain  extent  in  Europe  and 
is  known  as  "  Spot  Seeding."  In  principle  it  is  substan- 
tially the  same  as  Strip  Seeding.  Observing  when  the  for- 
est trees  will  mature  seed,  a  spot,  circular  or  otherwise,  is 
chosen  in  the  forest  and  cut  clean  of  trees.  Then  as  the 
seeds  mature  the  wind  is  depended  upon  to  sow  them  on 
the  vacant  area.  This  has  one  advantage  over  the  strip 
method.  No  matter  from  which  direction  the  winds  may 
blow  at  the  time  the  seeds  fall,  the  ground  is  almost  sure 
to  be  seeded,  for  it  will  be  entirely  surrounded  with  seed 
trees.  But  whether  this  or  the  Strip  method  is  adopted 
there  is  almost  certain  to  be  an  irregular  and  unsatisfac- 
tory distribution  and  scattering  of  the  seeds,  —  too  many 
in  some  places  and  too  few  in  others,  —  and  there  must  be 
a  thinning  in  some  localities  and  planting  in  others ;  and, 
furthermore,  no  satisfactory  control  of  species  can  be  ob- 
tained, nor  can  seeds  from  nut-bearing  trees  be  sown  by 
the  wind.  Besides  this,  the  system  leaves  the  forest  in  an 
irregular  stand,  with  mature  and  immature  trees  in  clumps 
and  more  or  less  interfering  with  roads  and  fire-lanes. 
Another  objection  to  it  is  that  the  mature  trees  left  may 
have  to  stand  a  long  time  before  they  can  be  cut,  for  when 
they  are  removed  no  seeding  can  occur  on  the  ground  occu- 
pied by  them  until  the  adjacent  younger  ones  bear  seed, 
which,  with  most  conifers,  does  not  occur  under  thirty  or 
forty  years  from  birth.  In  this  feature  it  is  not  as  satisfac- 
tory as  Strip  Seeding,  for  then  there  is  taken  a  strip,  from 
time  to  time,  until  the  whole  is  gone  over ;  and  by  the  time 
the  last  strip  has  been  cut  the  first  one  sown  may  be  ma- 
ture, and  the  process  can  be  repeated.  The  features  which 
make  it  superior  to  that  method  are  gi'eater  certainty  of 
seeding  and  protection  of  young  trees  from  wind. 


t^y 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION  25 

But  notwithstanding  the  objections  named,  Spot  Seeding 
may,  in  some  places,  do  as  well  as  Strip  Seeding.  Espe- 
cially so  may  it  serve  a  good  purpose  with  the  Spruces  and 
the  Southern  Pines,  and  also  with  the  "Western  Hemlock 
and  Douglas  Spruce  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  But  in  all  cases 
injury  is  likely  to  occur  to  the  young  trees  in  felling  and 
removing  the  mature  ones. 

Thus  far,  in  the  schemes  considered  for  reproducing  for- 
est trees,  dependence  has  been  placed  entirely  upon  Na- 
ture's production  and  reckless  distribution  of  seeds,  where 
she  gives  thousands  and  thousands  for  every  tree  that 
matures.  In  Strip  and  Spot  Seeding  man  aids  much  in  re- 
moving the  danger  of  suppression  of  young  growth  by 
overshadowing  trees  or  in  their  being  robbed  of  food  and 
moisture,  as  none  are  left  to  do  that,  while  the  surface  is 
left  in  much  better  condition  for  the  germination  of  the 
seeds  because  of  the  more  or  less  disturbance  it  undergoes 
in  removing  the  stand,  and  the  consequent  exposure  of  the 
mineral  soil.  However  satisfactory  one  or  both  of  these 
schemes  may  at  times  prove  to  be,  there  is  now  but  a  lim- 
ited area  of  forests  in  this  country  where  either  of  them 
can  be  successfully  applied.  Each  requires  a  fairly  full 
stand  of  mature  trees  to  produce  seed  and  in  but  few  situ- 
ations are  there  enough  such  left  to  justify  any  dependence 
being  placed  upon  them.  Only  with  dense  forests  of  valu- 
able species  can  they  succeed.  They  may  aid,  but  some  one 
or  all  of  the  other  systems  must  be  largely  adopted  if  our 
country  is  to  be  supplied  with  the  greatly  needed  forest 
products.  Nature  must  be  aided  in  forestry  as  well  as  in 
agriculture.  Seeds  must  be  gathered  and  sown  in  some 
fashion  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  select- 
ing the  best  species  and  adopting  the  best  methods  of 
growing  trees  from  them. 

That  better  methods  than  any  yet  named  can  be  chosen 
there  is  no  question,  and  these  will  now  be  discussed.  They 
are  known  as  Broadcast  Sowing,  Planting  Seeds  in  Hills, 


26  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Growing  Young  Trees  in  Nurseries,  and,  when  at  proper 
age,  transplanting  them  into  the  forests.  Of  course,  all 
these  presume  the  gathering  of  seeds,  a  subject  which  will 
be  discussed  when  the  various  species  of  timber  trees  to  be 
grown  are  described. 

Broadcast  Sowing.  This  is  nothing  more  or  less  than 
scattering  by  hand  a  suitable  amount  of  seed  as  evenly  as 
possible  over  barren  or  partially  covered  ground,  just  as  a 
farmer  sows  his  grain  without  the  aid  of  a  drill  or  other 
seed-sower.  To  be  at  all  successful  the  ground  should  be 
cleared  of  trees,  brush,  and  weeds,  for  if  these  are  present 
in  any  considerable  quantity  the  young  trees  will  be  sup- 
pressed by  them  should  the  seed  germinate.  If  it  is  gone 
over  with  any  implement  like  a  harrow,  which  will  scarify 
the  surface  and  expose  the  mineral  soil,  there  will  be  much 
greater  certainty  of  satisfactory  results.  A  light  brush  har- 
row, dragged  over  the  ground  by  hand  after  the  seeds  are 
sown,  will  so  cover  them  as  to  cause  quite  a  satisfactory 
germination.  In  the  absence  of  such  treatment  of  the  sur- 
face the  seed  should  be  sown  on  a  light  snow  in  the  spring, 
and  when  the  snow  melts,  the  seed  will  be  more  or  less 
carried  down  by  the  water  into  the  soil,  if  it  is  exposed,  or 
among  the  leaves  and  litter  if  such  are  present. 

There  are  several  somewhat  serious  objections  to  this 
method.  One  is  that  germination  of  the  seed  is  very  uncer- 
tain. It  may  not  fall  in  a  suitable  place  or  may  not  be  cov- 
ered. To  overcome  this  a  large  amount  of  seed  must  be 
sown.  In  Schlich's  Manual  it  is  claimed  that  six  pounds  of 
White  Pine  seed  should  be  sown  on  an  acre  of  ground.  A 
pound  of  that  seed  should  produce,  in  a  nursery,  from 
fifteen  thousand  to  sixteen  thousand  young  trees,  enough 
to  plant  between  eight  and  nine  acres  of  forest ;  and  if  the 
seed  costs  only  two  dollars  per  pound  —  a  low  figure  —  the 
expense  would  be  as  great,  if  not  greater,  than  to  plant 
trees  from  the  nursery.  Again,  it  is  utterly  impossible  to 
secure  an  even  stand  by  this  method.  Many  places  will  re- 
quire thinning,  while  others  will  have  to  be  filled  in.  Be- 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION  27 

sides,  birds,  mice,  or  squirrels  may,  and  in  many  cases 
will,  consume  much  if  not  all  the  seed.  When  all  things 
are  taken  into  consideration  it  is  neither  as  economical  nor 
in  any  way  as  satisfactory  as  planting  in  hills  or  raising 
trees  in  a  nursery  and  setting  them  out.  It  has  one  redeem- 
ing feature,  —  the  species  can  be  selected. 

Planting  in  Hills.  This  is  simply  planting  a  few  seeds 
in  places  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  in  the  forest,  sub- 
stantially as  a  hill  of  corn  is  planted.  The  ground  can  be 
spaced  off  in  some  convenient  and  cheap  way,  so  that  the 
hills  will  be  equidistant  and  the  proper  number  placed  on 
the  ground.  With  a  hoe  or  other  implement  the  ground 
can  be  slightly  loosened  on  the  surface  and  the  requisite 
number  of  seeds  dropped  in  and  a  very  light  covering  of 
soil  drawn  over  them,  unless  nuts  are  planted.  Three  six- 
teenths of  an  inch  is  deep  enough  for  most  seeds  with 
wings,  but  nuts  should  be  planted  from  one  to  two  and  one 
half  inches  deep.  If  the  ground  is  stony  or  rough,  or  ob- 
structions of  any  kind  prevent  regular  spacing,  the  hills 
can  be  put  in  where  conditions  permit,  for  exact  spacing  is 
not  essential.  This  system  is  well  adapted  to  stony,  rocky, 
or  rough  ground  where  it  may  be  difficult  to  find  suitable 
soil  into  which  to  transplant  young  trees.  Furthermore,  if 
the  ground  is  that  of  a  dry  ridge  or  steep  hillside,  or  any 
other  place  where  the  water  soon  disappears  after  a  rain, 
seeds  may  germinate  and  trees  grow,  just  as  they  do  in 
natural  seeding,  when,  if  a  tree  were  planted  into  such  soil, 
there  might  not  be  enough  moisture  to  give  it  strength  to 
overcome  the  great  shock  it  must  endure  in  being  trans- 
planted. 

The  number  of  seeds  to  be  dropped  in  a  given  place 
must  be  governed  by  the  ascertained  percentage  of  germ- 
ination. Ordinarily  fifty  per  cent  of  coniferous  seeds  may 
be  expected  to  grow  in  the  nursery,  but  it  will  be  well  to 
put  in  not  less  than  six  —  somewhat  separated  from  each 
other — when  planting  for  a  forest,  and  when  the  little 


28  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

trees  are  well  established,  all,  except  the  most  vigorous  one, 
should  be  removed.  If  any  vacant  places  should  be  found, 
they  can  be  filled  in  with  some  of  the  surplus  trees.  Besides 
controlling  the  species  this  system  insures  an  even  stand, 
something  which  cannot  be  brought  about  by  any  other 
except  planting  trees,  and  in  many  places  it  will  be  prefer- 
able to  that.  It  may  do  well  if  carried  out  immediately  after 
a  fire  has  killed  all  the  growth  of  trees,  shrubs,  weeds,  or 
grass.  The  greatest  drawback  to  this  method  is,  that  if  the 
ground  is  covered  with  weeds,  grass,  or  bushes,  these  may 
suppress  the  young  trees  in  their  infancy.  This  objection 
may  be  overcome  by  clearing  the  ground,  as  for  broadcast 
sowing,  or  removing  for  a  foot  or  so  whatever  may  be 
likely  to  suppress  them. 

As  there  can  be  no  strip,  spot,  or  broadcast  sowing  with 
the  seeds  of  nut-bearing  trees,  all  such  must  be  either 
planted  in  this  'way  or  the  plants  grown  in  a  nursery  and 
transplanted  into  the  forest  —  a  proceeding  which  is  not 
always  successful.  Nearly  all  of  them  have  a  more  or  less 
prominent  tap-root  and  some  will  not  submit  to  its  loss 
and  thrive,  and  planting  seeds  of  such  where  the  trees  are 
to  grow  is  much  the  best  way,  if  no  suppression  by  over- 
shadowing growth  is  permitted. 

Growing  Young  Trees  in  a  Nursery.  The  last  method 
to  be  considered  is  planting  the  seeds  in  a  nursery  and, 
when  the  little  trees  are  large  enough,  transplanting  them 
into  the  forest  where  they  are  to  grow  to  maturity ;  and  it 
is  by  no  means  the  least  important  one.  At  first  thought 
this  may  seem  to  entail  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of 
time  and  money.  Experience,  however,  shows  that  there  is, 
in  the  end,  economy  of  both.  There  are  cases,  as  hereto- 
fore shown,  where  other  methods  are  best,  but  they  are 
exceptional.  Planting  in  hills  is  the  only  one  that  can  be 
expected  to  approach  it  in  satisfactory  results ;  but  if  trees 
be  grown  in  a  nursery  until  they  are  three  or  four  years 
old  —  the  period  of  slowest  growth  of  nearly  all  the  coni- 


ARTIFICIAL   REFORESTATION  29 

fers  —  and  then  transplanted  into  the  forest,  they  are  better 
able  to  cope  with  their  adverse  surroundings  than  if  com- 
pelled to  struggle  for  life  when  ill  fitted  to  do  so. 

To  carry  out  this  method  the  seeds  are  sown  in  beds  in 
the  nursery,  carefully  protected  from  drouth  and  too  much 
sunshine,  cultivated  and  defended  from  the  encroachment 
of  weeds  and  disease,  and,  when  large  enough,  transplanted 
into  the  forest.  With  the  pines  and  other  conifers  trans- 
planting is  generally  done  when  the  trees  are  three  or  four 
years  old,  but  with  broadleaf  trees  most  of  them  may  be 
removed  from  the  nursery  when  only  one,  two,  or,  at  most, 
ihree  years  of  age. 

This  method  of  reforestation  possesses  the  same  advant- 
ages that  broadcast  sowing  and  planting  in  hills  enjoy  by 
giving  full  control  over  the  species  composing  the  forest. 
Only  suitable  ones  need  be  grown.  There  need  be  no  weed 
trees  —  species  worthless  for  lumber.  An  even  stand  can 
be  secured  and  the  greatest  yield  of  forest  products  ob- 
tained. As  more  trees  should  be  planted  in  the  forest  than 
can  ever  reach  maturity, —  this  to  compel  those  that  may 
be  left  to  grow  tall  and  drop  their  lower  limbs,  —  the  de- 
fective and  less  thrifty  ones  are  discarded,  as  hei-eafter  de- 
scribed, and  the  resultant  stand  will  all  be  perfect  trees.  For- 
estry should  be  carried  on  along  the  same  lines  that  other 
business  enterprises  are,  and  satisfactory  results  should  be 
sought  and  obtained.  The  aim  should  be  to  secure  the 
greatest  value  of  forest  from  the  smallest  possible  area,  or, 
in  other  words,  to  secure  the  greatest  peri^entage  of  profit 
on  the  money  invested,  and  perfect  trees  are  more  valuable 
than  imperfect  ones. 

An  acre  of  virgin  forest  may  have  seventy-five  mature 
trees  standing  upon  it  —  the  average  is  far  less  than  that 
—  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  has  taken  that  number  of 
years  for  them  to  grow,  or  an  equivalent  of  one  tree  a  year. 
It  may  also  be  assumed  that  as  fast  as  any  are  cut  others 
will  be  naturally  planted  in  their  places  so  that  the  stand 
will  remain  the  same.  Another  acre  may  have  two  hundred 


30  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

similar  trees,  —  the  average  number  of  a  planted  mature 
forest,  —  all  to  mature  in  seventy-five  years  and  all  to  be 
replanted  when  removed,  the  same  as  the  others.  The  first 
acre  will  yield  one  tree  a  year  and  the  second  two  and  two 
thirds  trees  in  that  time.  It  will  cost  no  more  to  care  for 
one  than  the  other,  and  hence  the  profit  must  be  in  still 
greater  ratio  than  their  yield.  Besides  this,  the  character 
of  the  lumber  grown  in  sparse  or  uneven  stands  and  where 
open  spaces  occur  is  always  inferior  in  quality  to  that 
grown  where  the  trees  are  all  tall  and  free  from  limbs. 

To  be  sure,  growing  trees  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting 
them  into  the  forests  cause  a  greater  expenditure  at  first, 
and  that  must  be  reckoned  with ;  but  calculation  will 
readily  show  that  this  increased  cost,  at  compound  interest, 
is  not  proportionately  as  great  as  the  increased  value  of 
the  product.  Experience  in  countries  growing  artificial 
forests  has  led  to  a  wide  adoption  of  this  system  of  repro- 
duction. Saxony  is  reputed  to  have  one  acre  of  forest  nur- 
sery to  every  one  thousand  acres  of  forest,  and  in  that 
kingdom  will  be  found  forests  producing  the  greatest 
revenue.  Switzerland  has  seven  hundred  and  eighty  acres 
of  forest  nurseries,  and  plants  about  twenty-two  million 
trees  each  year. 

The  absolute  control  of  the  species  of  trees  composing 
the  forest,  the  uniform  and  excellent  quality  of  the  lumber 
produced,  the  largely  increased  yield,  the  even  age  and 
size  of  the  trees  at  maturity,  together  with  the  much  greater 
certainty  of  securing  a  full  stand,  are  features  which  chal- 
lenge serious  consideration. 


FOREST  DEMANDS 

Moisture.  Moisture  in  the  soil  is  as  essential  to  tree- 
growth  as  it  is  to  any  of  our  farm  crops.  We  cannot  control 
the  amount  of  moisture  given  us,  but,  to  a  great  extent,  we 
can  so  care  for  the  forests  that  rain,  and  the  water  from 
melting  snows,  will  not  quickly  flow  off  from  the  ground 
on  which  the  trees  stand,  but  be  more  or  less  retained  and" 
its  presence  in  the  soil  of  the  forest  extended  over  a  much 
greater  period  of  time.  The  claim  that  the  presence  of 
forests  conduces  to  increased  rainfall  has  never  been  con- 
clusively proved.  Only  observations  extending  over  a  long 
period  of  time,  and  over  a  reasonably  large  territory  once 
covered  with  forests  and  afterwards  denuded,  or  the  re- 
verse, can  determine  that ;  hence  no  such  claim  will  be  made 
in  this  discussion.  The  effort  will  be  to  show  what  can  and 
should  be  done  to  utilize  such  water  as  may  be  granted  us. 
It  is  well  known  that  when  the  mineral  soil  has  no  covering, 
much  of  the  water  falling  upon  it  runs  off  rapidly,  and  also 
that  evaporation  of  what  may  be  absorbed  by  it  soon  takes 
place.  Observation  has  likewise  shown  that  if  the  soil  is 
covered  with  a  loose,  spongy  coating  of  vegetable  matter, 
neither  run-off  nor  evaporation  can  go  on  so  rapidly. 
Neither  can  evaporation  proceed  so  swiftly  in  the  shade,  or 
where  protected  from  the  winds,  as  when  the  surface  is  ex- 
posed to  every  breeze  that  sweeps  over  the  land. 

We  know  that  trees  and  other  vegetation  must  be  supplied 
with  water.  Unless  a  supply  can  be  furnished  to  the  root 
hairs  and  cells  there  will  be  no  sap  to  carry  the  mineral 
food  to  the  leaves,  and  without  that  there  can  be  no  growth. 
As  a  rule  there  is  a  mean  of  water  supply  which  must  be 
maintained  for  most  species  to  secure  the  best  results,  and 


32  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

experience  shows  that  a  departure  from  that  mean  ahnost 
invariably  occurs  on  the  side  of  an  absence  of  a  sufficient 
supply,  and  this  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  an  import- 
ant feature  connected  with  the  growth  of  timber  trees. 

The  Forest  Floor.  When  the  ground  is  covered  with  a 
growth  of  trees,  the  twigs,  leaves,  branches,  and  dead  trees 
which  fall  and  decay  produce,  in  time,  a  covering  of  a  spongy 
character  that  not  only  is  capable  of  itself  retaining  water 
but  prevents  its  rapid  run-otf,  thus  giving  it  time  to  perco- 
late into  the  earth,  which  is  always  looser  and  more  porous 
on  account  of  such  covering.  From  there  it  is  absorbed,  in 
part,  by  the  roots  of  the  trees  and  sent  to  the  leaves,  as 
elsewhere  shown,  and  the  supply  of  water  is  longer  retained 
than  when  the  naked  mineral  soil  is  exposed,  — the  greater 
part,  however,  entering  the  porous  soil  and  supplying 
springs  and  streams  with  a  gentle  flow,  —  and  thus  in  a 
large  measure  preventing  excessive  floods  on  the  one  hand 
and  dried-up  springs  and  stream-beds  on  the  other.  While 
some  of  the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  surface,  that  pro- 
cess goes  on  slowly  where  the  ground  is  largely  shielded 
from  the  sun  and  wind.  This  moisture-holding,  spongy  mass 
of  decaying  leaves  and  wood  which  covers  the  ground  on 
which  the  trees  grow  is  known  as  the  Forest  Floor,  and  its 
proper  maintenance  is  of  great  importance.  To  produce 
and  keep  it  satisfactorily  the  trees  in  the  forest  must  stand 
close  enough  to  shade  the  ground  completely,  and  there 
must  he  enough  decaying  leaves  and  wood  to  provide  an 
ample  thickness. 

This  decaying  matter  forms  the  well-known  humus,  that 
most  valuable  constituent  of  the  soil  which  converts  the 
disintegrated  and  decomposed  rocks  of  the  earth  from  com- 
parative barrenness  into  fertility.  Mingled  with  the  mineral 
earth,  it  forms  the  fertile  soil.  By  its  accumulation  the 
ground  is  constantly  enriched,  and  the  forests  thus  pay  an 
annual  rental  for  the  ground  they  occupy.  In  cultivated 
fields  there  is  no  such  accumulation,  and  instead  of  a  con- 
stant enrichment  there  is  a  continued  drain  upon  its  fer- 


FOREST  DEMANDS  33 

tility  by  the  growth  and  removal  of  crops  and  by  erosion. 
If  the  forest  has  been  growing  long  enough  this  decaying 
matter  will  be  found  mixed  with  the  earth  to  quite  a  depth, 
changing  it  from  barrenness  into  fertility  and  giving  to  it 
a  porous  character  and  a  darker  color.  Not  only  does  it  add 
valuable  chemical  constituents  to  the  soil,  but  the  decaying 
vegetable  matter  acts  mechanically  in  keeping  the  soil  loose. 

The  importance  of  maintaining  a  suitable  forest  floor 
cannot  be  too  strenuously  urged.  When  not  amply  pro- 
vided, the  trees  suffer,  in  part  through  lack  of  a  continuous 
supply  of  moisture  which  is  secured  by  its  presence,  and  in 
part  through  failure  to  receive  the  elements  of  fertility 
which  the  leaves  may  secure  from  the  atmosphere ;  and  the 
result  of  a  failure  to  maintain  this  ground  cover  is  always 
manifest  in  the  slow  growth  of  the  trees  of  the  forest.  A 
typical  productive  forest  is  one  where  the  crowns  of  the 
trees  practically  shut  out  the  sunlight  and  where  the  ripened 
foliage,  cast-off  bark,  and  decaying  wood  so  completely 
cover  the  ground  as  to  prevent  a  rapid  run-off  of  the  water 
that  may  reach  there,  retaining  a  portion  which,  for  a  while, 
will  supply  the  roots  of  the  trees  that  are  near  the  surface, 
and  also  prevent  the  rapid  evaporation  which  would  occur 
were  not  such  covering  present.  The  necessity  for  preserving 
the  forest  floor  intact  was  experimentally  learned  in  Europe 
some  time  ago  where  the  freshly  fallen  and  decaying  leaves, 
bark,  and  wood  were,  by  permission,  removed  from  the 
forests  by  the  peasants.  It  was  discovered  in  due  time 
that  the  forest-growth  was  severely  interfered  with  through 
such  removal,  and  it  was  prohibited.  Experience  proves  it 
is  necessary  to  secure  a  complete  covering  of  the  ground  by 
the  foliage  as  early  as  possible  in  the  life  of  a  newly  planted 
forest  in  order  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  to 
hasten  the  time  when  the  cast-off  leaves,  bark,  and  twigs 
will  furnish  the  greatly  needed  protection  for  the  ground. 
This,  as  well  as  to  secure  a  growth  free  from  limbs,  ren- 
ders close  planting  necessary. 

The  Forest  Crown.  While  the  forest  floor  is  important, 


134  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

the  forest  crown  must  not  be  overlooked.  These  two  fea- 
tures of  the  forest  are  intimately  connected  with  each  other. 
The  condition  of  the  crown  indicates  the  rapidity  and  vigor 
of  growth  of  the  body  of  the  tree  from  which  the  lumber 
must  be  cut.  If  the  trees  are  so  great  in  number  as  to 
cause  the  roots  seriously  to  rob  each  other  of  food  and 
moisture,  or  if  the  forest  floor  does  not  completely  protect 
the  root  system  with  decaying  leaves  and  the  like,  then  the 
growth  of  timber  will  be  satisfactory  in  neither  character 
nor  amount.  If  the  crown  is  so  open  as  to  allow  weeds  and 
grass  to  grow,  that  is  evidence  that  there  are  not  trees 
enough.  The  shade  should  be  so  dense  as  to  suppress  what- 
ever is  not  useful.  If  the  trees  are  so  close  that  there  is  not 
enough  food  or  moisture  to  maintain  a  vigorous  growth,  and 
the  tops  of  the  trees  show  a  diminution  of  annual  height 
growth,  or  some  trees  are  being  suppressed,  then  there  are 
too  many  and  some  should  be  removed.  There  should  be  an 
equilibrium  preserved  between  root  and  crown.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  forest  crown  should  be  carefully  observed,  for 
there  the  first  indication  of  lack  of  vigor  or  of  injury  or 
disease  will  manifest  itself.  While  the  twigs  and  leaves 
may  not  be  the  most  vulnerable,  they  are  the  first  to  give 
the  alarm.  An  insufficient  supply  of  moisture  to  the  roots 
will  in  a  short  time  surely  show  itself  in  the  crown. 

In  mature  age,  and  when  the  trees  increase  in  height 
but  slowly,  —  as  will  be  the  case  in  time,  for  there  is  a 
limit  beyond  which  a  tree  will  not  grow  in  height,  and  that 
limit  is  gradually  reached  as  it  approaches  maturity,  —  they 
may  stand  so  far  apart  and  the  crown  be  so  open  that  the 
sunshine  can  reach  the  forest  floor  and  allow  the  grass  to 
grow.  If  so  the  grass  should  not  be  fed  off  by  stock.  Even 
though  the  grass  absorb  moisture  it  does  not  rob  the  ground 
of  food,  if  allowed  to  remain  and  decay,  while  its  removal 
not  only  does  that,  but  exposes  the  soil  to  more  rapid  eva- 
poration, and  even  erosion.  There  should  be  shade  and 
covering  for  the  forest  floor  and  sunlight  for  the  forest 


FOREST  DEMANDS  35 

Light.  Light  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  growth  of 
trees.  The  result  of  closing  the  stomata  —  the  breathing- 
pores  of  the  leaves — which  an  absence  of  light  brings  about, 
is  elsewhere  shown  (page  70).  But  all  trees  are  not  alike 
in  the  amount  of  light  they  require  to  maintain  a  fairly 
vigorous  growth.  All  will  do  best  by  having  a  proper 
amount, but  some  demand  more  than  others ;  or,  to  state  it  in 
another  way,  some  can  endure  more  shade  than  others.  Those 
which  can  endure  the  most  shade  are  termed  "  tolerant," 
in  contradistinction  to  those  which  can  endure  little  or  none, 
and  the  latter  are  designated  "  intoleraxit."  The  need  of 
light  which  some  species  manifest  has  greater  significance 
when  natural  regeneration  is  depended  upon  than  when  a 
forest  is  established  by  sowing  seeds  or  setting  out  trees. 
In  the  former  many  trees,  whether  tolerant  or  otherwise, 
may  be  driven  out  because  the  rapidly  growing  ones  will 
suppress  them  with  their  shade  ;  and  the  fact  that  nearly  all 
of  the  most  valuable  timber  trees  are  light-demanding  makes 
this  possibility  a  feature  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Most  of  the  Oaks,  the  Pines,  Spruces,  Hickories,  Elms, 
Ashes,  Cherry,  Basswood,  Yellow  Poplar,  Larches,  Chest- 
nut, and  several  others  are  more  or  less  intolerant,  while  Sugar 
Maple,  Beech,  Hemlock,  and  a  few  others  are  more  or  less 
tolerant,  and  will  thrive,  after  a  fashion,  in  the  shade  of 
their  own  or  other  species.  Hemlock  will  grow  under  a  white 
pine,  but  a  white  pine  will  not  thrive  and  reach  a  full 
growth  in  the  deep  shade  of  any  tree.  It  can  be  easily  deter- 
mined whether  a  tree  is  intolerant  of  shade  even  when  grow- 
ing in  the  open.  If  the  small  twigs  and  limbs,  which  at 
first  grow  next  to  the  stem  and  large  limbs,  are  dead  or 
dying,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  are  mainly  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  crown,  or  none  of  moment  next  the  large 
limbs,  the  tree  may  be  set  down  as  Intolerant  to  a  great  de- 
gree. Some  trees,  as  Maple  and  Beech,  may  have  nearly 
the  whole  top  a  quite  dense  mass  of  smaU  limbs  and  twigs 
bearing  leaves,  while  a  White  Ash,  Cherry,  or  other  intoler- 
ant tree  will  have  the  interior  of  its  crown  open  and  the 


36  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

twigs  and  leaves  all  on  or  near  the  outer  ends  of  the  limbs. 
All  species  require  more  light  in  old  age  than  in  early  life. 

DO  FORESTS  IMPOVERISH  THE  SOIL  ? 

Soil  exhaustion  is  a  very  important  feature  when  con- 
sidering plant  growth  and  should  be  well  understood,  and 
it  is  as  well  to  know  what  demands  are  made  upon  the  soil 
when  we  propose  to  grow  a  forest  as  when  farm  crops  are 
to  be  produced.  Investigations  made  in  Bavaria  show  that 
an  acre  of  wheat  requires  27.9  pounds  of  potash  and  22.7 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  while  an  acre  of  beech  forest 
demands  only  13  pounds  of  potash  and  11.9  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  wood-growth  requiring  about  one  half  as 
much  as  the  wheat.  The  difference  is  more  marked  between 
potatoes  and  pine,  the  former  exacting  79.5  pounds  of  pot- 
ash and  26.8  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  acre,  while  pine 
requires  but  6.Q  pounds  of  potash  and  4.3  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  potatoes  calling  for  eleven  times  more  pot- 
ash and  six  times  more  phosphoric  acid.  The  discrepancy 
is  nearly  as  great  in  the  demands  for  nitrogen,  for  12 
pounds  per  acre  for  broadleaf  trees  and  80  pounds  for 
potatoes.!  Conifers  require  less  of  the  absolutely  necessary 
food  for  tree-growth  than  deciduous  trees. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  large  amount  of 
plant  food  given  to  the  soil  from  tree-growth,  one  half  of 
which  is  received  from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  amount 
drawn  from  the  soil,  —  and  what  it  calls  for  there  is  mainlj 
obtained  deep  down  in  the  earth,  and  below  where  most 
farm  crop  roots  reach,  —  it  will  be  seen  why  forests  do  not 

1  Were  it  not  for  the  constant  return  to  the  soil,  of  potash,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  nitrogen  by  the  forest,  this  annual  drain,  by  the  trees,  of  the  ele- 
ments of  fertility  would  amount  to  a  large  sura  during  their  growth,  but  by 
no  means  as  great  as  would  be  the  drain  upon  these  elements  by  the  farm 
crops  for  the  same  length  of  time,  and  with  no  compensating  return  what- 
ever. Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  in  his  Economics  of  Forestry  (page  451),  says  :  "In 
the  average  there  are  aimually  returned  by  the  fall  of  leaves  and  litter  in  a 
dense  forest  from  1800  to  4500  pounds  per  acre,  according  to  kind  and  con- 
dition of  growth  and  soil,  from  22  to  220  pounds  of  minerals,  potash,  phos- 
phoric acid,  magnesia,  lime,  etc.,  and  12  to  GO  pounds  of  nitrogen." 


FOREST  DEMANDS  37 

impoverish  the  soil,  but  actually  enrich  it.  Every  one  hav- 
ing had  experience  knows  that  newly  cleared  land  is  more 
fertile  and  more  easily  worked  than  fields  long  tilled,  un- 
less the  latter  have  been  fertilized  artificially.  It  is  true  that 
when  the  forest  crop  is  harvested  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  wood  removed,  but  no  great  quantity  of  the  elements  of 
fertility  required  for  farm  crops  is  taken  away.  The  com- 
position of  wood  shows  that.  Approximately  one  half  of  the 
wood  is  carbon,  forty-two  per  cent  oxygen,  six  per  cent 
hydrogen,  and  only  one  per  cent  nitrogen  and  the  same 
amount  mineral  ash.  The  nitrogen  and  what  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  there  may  be  in  the  mineral  ash  are  all  the 
important  elements  of  fertility  for  the  agriculturist  that  are 
taken  from  the  land  from  the  time  the  tree  springs  from 
the  seed  until  it  is  harvested,  —  and  all  that  time  it  has 
been  giving  more  to  the  soil  in  its  decaying  leaves  than  it 
has  taken,  —  while  a  crop  of  wheat  will  take  twice  as  much 
in  one  year  and  return  nothing.  Neither  do  trees  require  as 
much  surface  moisture  as  farm  crops.  While  it  is  true  that 
some  of  the  water  falling  on  the  trees  never  reaches  the 
ground  and  is  evaporated  from  the  leaves,  twigs,  and  limbs, 
there  is  enough  falling  on  it  to  keep  it  moist  much  longer 
than  in  the  open  field,  owing  to  the  protection  of  the  sur- 
face, from  the  sun  and  wind,  by  the  foliage  and  forest 
floor. 


VI 

DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORESTATION 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  reforestation  of  our  cut- 
over  and  burned-over  lands  is  beset  with  many  difficulties. 
Few  of  our  people  have  thought  that  we  should  ever  be 
compelled  to  replace  them  by  planting  trees.  We  have 
given  little  or  no  attention  to  restoring  our  forests,  and 
have  allowed  the  very  worst  conditions  to  fasten  themselves 
upon  much  of  the  area  upon  which  the  forests  of  the  future 
must  stand,  and  we  now  find  ourselves  confronted  with 
difficulties  which  neither  should  nor  would  have  occurred 
had  proper  measures  been  taken  in  time  to  avert  them. 
That  it  will  be  expensive  and  difficult  successfully  to  re- 
plant our  cut-over  and  burned-over  lands  must  not  deter  us 
from  undertaking  the  work.  Whether  it  will  cost  little  or 
much,  or  whether  it  will  be  easy  or  difficult  to  bring  about, 
cannot  now  be  considered,  for  it  is  an  absolute  necessity.  It 
is  a  duty  which  we  cannot  evade,  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
nation  is  at  stake,  and  wisdom  dictates  that  we  should 
make  thorough  investigation  and  adopt  the  best  possible 
measures. 

The  land  upon  which  the  forests  of  the  future  must  grow 
can  be  divided  into  four  classes,  but  the  lines  of  demarc- 
ation are  not  very  distinct.  One  class  is  where  all  tree- 
growth  has  been  destroyed  by  the  axe  and  repeated  fires, 
and  where  nothing  but  bare  ground  or  ferns,  briers,  weeds, 
and  shrubs  can  be  found.  Such  land  has  suffered  greatly 
from  having  its  humus  practically  destroyed  and,  in  addi- 
tion, its  fertility  greatly  lessened  by  erosion.  In  the  main, 
such  areas  can  be  reforested  with  a  fair  chance  of  success 
if  erosion  has  not  gone  too  far  ;  but  the  growth  will  be  slow 
for  a  long  time,  consequent  upon  the  loss  of  fertility.    The 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORESTATION  39 

crop  of  weeds  will  somewhat  interfere  with  and  hinder  the 
growth  of  the  young  trees  that  may  be  planted  among 
them,  but  if  fair-sized  strong  plants  with  good  root  devel- 
opment are  selected,  the  weeds,  unless  very  dense,  will  not 
seriously  hinder.  The  cost  of  reforesting  such  areas  will  be 
as  low  as  that  of  any,  and  less  than  some,  but  that  will  be 
offset  by  slow  growth  for  several  years.  After  the  ground 
is  well  covered  with  the  shade  of  the  trees  planted  thereon, 
and  a  proper  forest  floor  secured  thereby,  the  growth  will 
assume  a  natural  vigor. 

Another  class  is  land  on  which  the  total  destruction  of 
tree-growth  has  not  occurred,  but  where  worthless  species 
predominate  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  all  others,  and 
where  reforestation  with  valuable  ones  cannot  occur  until 
the  objectionable  ones  are  removed.  Such  land  was  un- 
doubtedly burned  over  after  the  lumberman  had  taken 
what  he  cared  for,  but  the  fires  have  not  been  so  frequent  or 
so  severe  as  to  destroy  all  tree-growth,  and  the  result  is  that 
Fire  Cherry,  Trembling  Aspen,  Sumac,  Scrub  Oak,  and 
other  worthless  stuff  have  sprung  up  and  now  cover  more  or 
less  of  the  ground.  In  much  of  such  territory  this  growth  is 
so  dense  that  no  planting  of  valuable  species  underneath  or 
among  it  should  be  expected  to  grow.  It  would  be  sup- 
pressed if  planted.  The  seeds  of  these  worthless  species 
have  been  scattered  over  the  land  by  the  winds  and  birds, 
and  as  all  are  rapid  growers  in  early  life,  they  outstrip  all 
valuable  ones  and  take  and  keep  possession  of  the  ground. 
How  to  get  rid  of  this  encumbrance  is  not  easily  indicated, 
and  each  case  should  be  dealt  with  according  to  its  dis- 
tinctive conditions ;  but  the  removal  must  be  effected  in 
some  way  before  planting  can  be  successful ;  and  the  cost 
may  be  considerable.  Probably  the  easiest  and  least  expen- 
sive way,  but  most  destructive  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
would  be  to  surround  the  area  to  be  planted  with  a  fire 
line  cut  wide  enough  to  enable  those  in  charge  of  the  work 
to  prevent  fire  escaping,  and  then  burn  over  the  tract  as 
soon  in  early  spring  as  possible,  and  at  once  set  out  strong 


40  IMPORTANT  TIMBER   TREES 

healthy  plants  or  plant  seeds.  There  would  probably  be 
some  places  where  the  fire  would  not  kill  all,  or,  if  killed, 
all  would  not  be  consumed.  In  that  case  the  axe  must  be 
used  and  the  brush  be  piled  and  burned.  As  there  may  be 
adjacent  territory  that  cannot  be  burned  at  this  time,  there 
will,  no  doubt,  again  be  seeds  of  worthless  species  scattered 
on  the  tract  planted ;  but  if  the  plants  set  out  are  vigorous 
and  of  good  size,  they  will  be  able  to  hold  their  own  in 
most  cases.  If  not,  and  they  are  likely  to  be  suppressed  by 
the  fast-growing  intruders,  then  the  intruders  must  be  cut 
down.  The  farmer  cannot  permit  weeds  to  choke  out  his 
crop,  and  no  less  can  the  forester  allow  it. 

Another  way  to  prepare  such  ground  for  planting  is  to 
cut  and  pile  the  objectionable  tree-growth  in  late  fall  or 
early  spring  and  burn  it  without  permitting  the  fire  to  run 
over  the  ground  and  destroy  the  humus,  and  in  the  spring 
to  set  out  strong  vigorous  plants.  This  will  save  the  humus 
that  may  have  accumulated,  but  this  method  is  expensive 
and  there  is  danger  that  a  new  growth  will  come  from 
sprouts,  for  there  will  be  more  vigor  left  in  the  roots  than 
if  the  fire  had  done  the  work,  and  there  will  probably  be 
some  seeds  remaining  there  which  have  failed  to  germin- 
ate for  want  of  opportunity  or  time,  and  these  will  send  up 
a  new  crop  of  pests.  If  the  worthless  stuff  is  sparse,  quite 
likely  cutting  and  burning  will  be  the  best  plan.  Condi- 
tions must  determine  which  plan  to  adopt. 

There  is  another  class  of  land  from  which,  unfortunately, 
little  can  be  expected  at  present,  for  those  who  have  to  do 
with  it  have  not  yet  learned  that  we  are  in  the  beginning 
of  a  timber  famine,  or  that  the  best  time  to  reforest  is  im- 
mediately after  the  removal  of  the  virgin  stand,  or  even 
that  there  is  any  necessity  for  reforestation.  It  is  where 
forests  are  being  removed  and  where,  if  not  promptly  re- 
forested with  valuable  species,  there  will  come  a  mixed 
growth  of  useless  and  valuable  species,  but  over  which  the 
useless  ones  will,  in  time,  assert  and  maintain  supremacy 
and  prevent  satisfactory  results.  If  planting  on  such  terri- 


A  VIEW  IN  THE  FOREST  OF  PRIXCE   BISMARCK, 
FRIEDRICHSRUHE,    GERJIANY 

Compartment  line  serves  as  fire  line  and  road.    Spruce,  planted. 
Courtesy  of  Professor  Filibert  Roth. 


AN   OLD  PLANTATION   OF   SPRUCE   NEAR  EISENACH 
Star-shaped  rows.  —  Courtesy  of  Professor  Filibert  Roth. 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORESTATION  41 

tory  is  to  follow  removal  of  the  forest  it  should  be  doue  at 
once,  and  before  the  seeds  of  worthless  species  can  be  sown. 
Cut  the  forest-growth  clean,  pile  and  burn  the  brush,  but 
prevent  fire  from  running  over  the  tract,  and  either  plant 
seeds  or  set  out  trees  in  early  spring  next  after  removal  of 
the  forest.  If  a  year  is  allowed  to  elapse,  a  growth  of  stuff 
will  spring  up  and  the  planted  seeds  or  trees  will  have  an 
unnecessary  battle  to  fight,  which  may  end  in  their  defeat. 
If  no  planting  is  done,  and  fire  does  not  run  over  the 
ground,  a  growth  of  weed  trees  mingled  with  good  species 
will  come  up,  and  the  weed  trees,  being  faster  growers  than 
the  others,  will  suppress  the  useful  ones,  as  elsewhere  un- 
der like  conditions,  the  same  as  on  burned-over  ground. 
Only  prompt  planting  can  bring  success.  This  method  is 
largely  followed  in  Europe  where  intensive  forestry  is 
profitably  carried  on. 

There  remains  to  be  considered  one  other  condition  of 
the  ground  where  planting  trees  is  certainly  advisable.  That 
is  in  abandoned  fields  where  there  are  few  or  no  obstacles 
in  the  shape  of  tree-growth,  and  where  grass  and  low  weeds 
cover  the  ground.  If  there  is  a  sod  on  the  ground  experi- 
ence shows  that  the  young  trees  will  usually  do  better  when 
planted  in  it  than  when  it  has  been  ploughed  under,  unless 
a  year  or  more  elapses  before  planting,  for  if  planted  on 
newl}^  turned  sod  the  plants  are  liable  to  die  through  drain- 
age of  the  moisture  from  the  roots  into  the  open  spaces 
surrounding  the  sods.  Moreover,  the  vegetable  mould  of 
the  sod,  and  the  growth  it  supports,  act  as  a  cover  to  the  soil 
and  prevent  rapid  evaporation.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  cut 
away  or  remove  the  grass  and  low  weeds.  Experience  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Forestry  Department  has  shown  that  young 
White  Pines  grow  as  well  when  the  grass  is  not  removed. 
It  may,  and  doubtless  is,  advisable  to  plough  ground  and 
let  the  sod  of  the  prairies  rot  before  attempting  to  plant, 
and  in  such  cases  it  will  be  advisable  to  cultivate  the  ground 
a  few  years  after  planting,  and  if  the  land  is  fertile  low-grow- 
ing crops  may  be  grown  with  the  trees  for  one  or  two  years. 


42  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

The  varying  conditions  which  prevail  on  the  cut-over 
lands  of  the  country  make  it  impossible  to  point  out  what 
is  the  best  course  to  pursue  without  a  careful  examination 
of  each  case.  The  location,  character  of  soil,  species  of  trees 
to  plant,  and  climatic  conditions  must  be  considered  in 
each  case ;  and  therefore  only  a  general  indication  of  the 
best  method  to  pursue  can  be  given.  There  is  one  rule,  how- 
ever, applicable  to  all  cases :  the  planted  trees  must  not  be 
suppressed  by  worthless  species,  and  every  advantage  pos- 
sible should  be  given  them. 


VII 

PLANTING  THE  FOREST 
SHOULD   THE   SPECIES   BE  MINGLED? 

If  the  necessity  for  planting  forests  to  restore  them  where 
they  have  been  destroyed  be  admitted,  —  and  it  cannot  be 
truthfully  denied  where  productive  forests  no  longer  exist, 
—  the  method  to  be  adopted  becomes  an  important  matter, 
and  we  naturally  turn  to  see  what  Nature  did  when  she 
grew  them  so  abundantly.  In  the  virgin  forests  of  our 
country  several  species  of  trees  demanding  like  conditions 
of  climate,  soil,  and  situation  are  found  growing  in  close  and 
intimate  association.  Broadleaf  trees  lock  their  limbs  in  ap- 
parently friendly  embrace  while  they  tolerate  the  conifers 
and  are  by  them  welcomed.  But  for  all  the  apparent  har- 
mony and  good-fellowship,  there  is  a  silent  but  persistent 
struggle  going  on  both  in  the  air  and  under  the  ground  for 
supremacy  and  even  existence.  All  must  have  light,  —  some 
species  more  than  others,  —  and  nearly  all  more  in  old  age 
than  in  youth.  This  strife  never  ceases  and  it  ends  in  a  vast 
nimiber  of  fatalities.  So,  too,  all  must  have  mineral  food 
and  moisture,  and  the  battle  in  the  ground  between  the 
roots  is  more  stubbornly  contested  than  is  that  in  the  air 
between  the  leaves.  In  both  cases  a  tree  will  contend  with 
one  of  its  own  species  or  with  that  of  another,  and  class  will 
war  with  class. 

Neither  does  the  conflict  show  any  sympathetic  spirit,  nor 
are  there  any  rules  of  warfare  recognized,  and  the  result  is 
simply  a  survival  of  the  strongest.  When  mature  trees  fully 
dominate  the  ground  they  practically  suppress  all  young 
growth  underneath  their  branches,  and  not  until  they  fail 
from  some  cause  can  a  new  forest  be  grown.  They  give  no 
opportunity  for  other  trees  to  grow  and  rob  them  of  light. 


44  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

food,  and  moisture.  And  this  struggle  causes  them  to  as- 
sume a  different  shape  and  form  when  growing  in  close 
proximity  to  unwelcome  neighbors  from  that  taken  when 
not  so  crowded.  In  the  effort  to  overtop  their  companions 
and  obtain  the  needed  light,  they  grow  tall,  their  lower  limbs 
die  and  drop  off,  and  the  result  is  that  such  trees  become 
valuable  for  lumber  —  much  more  so  than  if  grown  in  the 
open  —  and  this  warfare  inures  to  the  benefit  of  man- 
kind. We  have  thus  far  reaped  the  fruits  of  a  conflict 
which  has  been  constantly  kept  up  in  our  virgin  forests, 
and  it  will  most  certainly  be  to  our  advantage  so  to  plant 
in  the  future  that  the  contest  for  supremacy  will  be  con- 
tinued. Naturally  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  location 
have  caused  certain  species  to  segregate  and  grow  by  them- 
selves, or  with  others  whose  needs  are  similar.  In  some  re- 
gions none  but  broadleaf  trees  can  be  found,  in  others  those 
with  needle-like  leaves,  —  the  conifers  mainly,  —  while  in 
others  they  are  intermingled. 

It  was  seldom,  except  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  that 
the  battle  was  fought  to  a  finish,  so  that  one  species  alone 
enjoyed  any  considerable  area  of  ground,  but  where  it  has 
been  the  name  of  "Pure  Stand"  is  applied,  and  where  the 
forest  is  of  mingled  species  it  is  known  as  a  "  Mixed  Stand." 
The  latter  is  the  rule  and  the  former  the  exception,  and 
when  we  contemplate  planting  a  forest  we  must  determine 
which  of  the  two  systems  we  will  adopt.  In  other  words,  we 
must  decide  whether  we  will  mix  conifers  with  broadleaf 
trees,  or  one  species  of  conifers  with  another,  or  mingle 
broadleaf  trees  with  each  other,  or  those  demanding  light 
with  those  that  are  capable  of  enduring  more  or  less  shade, 
—  for  it  is  only  in  the  struggle  for  light  that  we  can  con- 
trol, —  or,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  we  will  keep  separate 
or  make  close  neighbors  of  light-demanding  and  shade- 
enduring  trees.  If  we  mingle  them  at  all  we  must  decide  to 
what  extent  and  what  species  we  will  make  close  compan- 
ions and  associates,  even  though  it  be  against  their  wishes. 
All  this  must  be  taken  into  account  when  we  plant  the  for- 


PLANTING  THE  FOREST  45 

est ;  and  in  considering  it  we  must  not  forget  that  we  must 
so  plant  that  each  tree  will  be  crowded  and  forced  to  grow 
into  valuable  lumber;  and  this  involves  the  mingling  or 
segregation  of  species,  —  as  the  case  may  be,  —  the  distance 
apart  the  trees  should  be  planted,  whether  alone  or  mixed, 
and  also  such  subsequent  treatment  as  will  cause  them  to 
continue  the  struggle  and  yet  make  the  most  rapid  growth 


Unfortunately  professional  foresters  are  by  no  means 
agreed  upon  the  best  course  to  pursue.  The  claim  put  forth 
by  those  who  advocate  mingling  the  species,  and  planting 
tolerant  ^  with  intolerant  ones,  is  based  upon  the  fact  that 
Nature  mingles  them  in  virgin  forests,  and  that  when  a 
forest  is  destroyed  by  the  axe  of  the  lumberman  or  in  any 
other  way,  she  makes  no  discrimination  either  in  species  or 
toleration,  but  again  plants  them  haphazard.  It  is  also  in- 
sisted that  there  may  be  a  greater  yield  in  a  mixed  forest  of 
tolerant  and  intolerant  trees  than  in  a  forest  of  one  sort  alone, 
because  the  tolerant  ones  can  and  do  grow  in  the  shade  of  the 
intolerants,  and  thus  the  ground  can  be  made  to  produce  a 
greater  yield ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  naturally 
planted  forests  this  is  true.  Beyond  this  it  is  argued  that 
by  mingling  tolerant  and  intolerant  trees  a  better  shading 
of  the  ground  can  be  brought  about  because  the  open  crowns 
of  the  intolerant  ones  do  not  always  afford  a  complete  pro- 
tection to  the  forest  floor ;  and,  finally,  that  a  mixed  forest 
is  not  so  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  insects  or  disease,  or  in- 
jured by  winds,  as  where  only  one  species  is  present. 

Those  who  oppose  mixing  conifers  with  broadleaf  trees, 
or  planting  tolerant  with  intolerant  ones  of  either  class, 
insist  that  the  mingling  of  all  in  our  virgin  forests  is  a  mat- 
ter of  accident  instead  of  law  or  design  ;  that  Nature  has 
made  ample  provisions  for  sowing  seeds  of  all  kinds  of 
trees  through  the  agency  of  the  winds  or  animals,  and  that 

1  As  noted  on  page  35,  a  tolerant  tree  is  one  which  can  endore  more  or 
less  ahade  and  an  intolerant  one  such  as  exacts  the  follest  light ;  that  is,  one 
is  shade-enduring  and  the  other  light-demanding. 


46  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

seed  distribution  is  carried  on  through  what  may  truthfully 
be  called  accident  or  chance ;  and  that  the  species  them- 
selves have  no  hand  in  it  and  cannot  select  their  companions, 
and  that  seed  must  grow,  if  at  all,  where  it  falls  ;  hence  that 
what  may  be  seen  in  virgin  forests  should  not  necessarily 
be  taken  as  a  guide. 

It  is  further  insisted  by  the  opponents  of  mixed  forests 
that  experience  with  artificial  ones  abroad  has  shown  that 
pure  stands,  or  stands  composed  of  trees  of  equal  demand 
for  light,  mineral  food,  and  moisture,  produce  the  greatest 
yield,  admitting,  however,  the  greater  liability  of  damage 
by  disease,  insects,  or  winds  to  a  pure  stand.  With  these  and 
lesser  arguments  has  the  controversy  been  carried  on  and 
it  is  still  unsettled,  and  probably  will  not  be  determined 
very  soon;  not  until  experience  establishes  what  is  best  in 
this  country  with  our  varying  conditions  of  soil,  climate, 
species,  and  surroundings ;  but  in  the  mean  time  we  should 
be  guided  as  far  as  possible  by  what  a  study  of  our  forests 
may  reveal  as  indicating  the  system  of  planting  most  likely 
to  lead  to  success.  As  stated,  we  know  that  in  some  cases 
Nature  grows  pure  stands  and  in  others  she  mingles  the 
species  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  successfully  so  in 
both  cases ;  and  to  assume  that  only  one  of  these  is  in  all 
cases  the  true  one  would  manifestly  be  absurd.  Hence  we 
may  choose  as  conditions  and  necessities  may  dictate  ;  but 
in  making  a  choice  we  should  not  ignore  the  known  laws 
of  tree-growth.  Elsewhere  (page  35)  has  been  shown  the 
demand  for  light  which  all  trees  make.  From  what  is  there 
set  forth  it  is  manifest  that  if  a  rapidly  growing  tree  is 
planted  in  close  proximity  to  a  slow-growing  one  the  for- 
mer will  suppress  its  neighbor  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
This  is  compensated,  in  part,  by  some  trees  enduring  more 
shade  than  others,  but  that  fact  does  not  prove  that  those 
requiring  less  light  than  the  others  will  grow  better  under 
the  shade  of  more  intolerant  ones  than  if  given  full  light. 
It  only  shows  that  the  tolerant  tree  is  accommodating  itself 
to  adverse  conditions.  Neither  does  it  show  that  the  more 


PLANTING  THE  FOREST  47 

rapidly  growing  tree  is  benefited  by  the  close  companion- 
ship of  a  slow-growing  one.  Therefore  we  may  safely  as- 
sume that  for  trees  demanding  like  soil,  climatic  conditions, 
and  situations,  rapidity  of  growth  must,  in  the  main,  be  the 
governing  factor  in  determining  whether  or  not  to  mingle 
species,  although  the  demand  for  moisture  —  broadleaf 
trees,  when  in  full  leaf,  requiring  more  than  needle-leaf  ones 
—  and  the  protection  of  the  forest  floor  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of.  There  is  no  known  law  of  tree-growth  violated  in 
planting  either  pure  or  mixed  stands  if  rapidity  of  growth 
of  the  species  and  their  demands  for  light,  moisture,  and 
food  be  equal. 

The  claim  that  any  one  species  has  a  greater  aversion  to 
members  of  its  own  household  than  to  that  of  others  is 
remotely  tenable  if  at  all.  It  is  probably  true,  however, 
that  as  some  species  require  less  moisture  or  less  mineral 
food  than  others,  or  draw  from  the  soil  different  food  ele- 
ments, they  may  be  more  acceptable  neighbors  than  those 
of  like  species.  But  of  this  we  know  little  or  nothing,  and 
we  may  safely  assume  that  it  will  be  well  to  plant  pure 
stands,  or,  if  mixed,  mingle  such  as  grow  equally  rapidly 
and  vigorously  in  the  same  situation.^ 

It  is  also  claimed  that  a  slow-growing  tree  may  be  set 
out  in  the  forest  and  allowed  to  grow  for  a  time  and  then 
a  more  rapidly  growing  one  be  placed  along  with  it  to 
serve  as  a  "nurse"  tree.  If  we  could  even  approximately 
determine  the  time  that  should  elapse  between  the  plant- 
ings, this  plan  might  work  well,  —  if  there  were  anything 
to  be  gained,  an  assumption  not  well  founded,  —  but  we 
do  not  know  accurately  enough  the  difference  in  rapidity  of 

^  A.  C.  Forbes,  in  his  recently  published  Development  of  British  Forestry 
(page  187),  says  :  *'  At  the  present  time  there  are  three  fairly  distinct 
systems  in  operation  in  the  British  Isles  —  eren-ag-ed  forest,  coppice  -with 
standards,  and  the  system  of  selective  felling  or  uneven-aged  high  forests, 
\Fhich  is  •worked  more  often  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  owner  than  in 
the  interests  of  good  forestry.  The  first  system  is  practically  the  only  sound 
system  to  adopt  when  returns  in  the  shape  of  high-class  timber  are  ex- 
pected." This  system  b  now  being  generally  adopted  in  European  forests. 


48  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

growth  of  many  of  our  valuable  timber  trees  to  determine 
when  to  make  the  second  planting.  Some  species  grow 
slowly  in  early  life  and  others  rapidly  during  that  period, 
and  the  growth  of  all  is  more  or  less  controlled  by  char- 
acter and  conditions  of  soil  and  other  surroundings.  We 
have  no  need  for  guesswork  when  we  know  that  under  like 
conditions  members  of  each  species  make  practically  the 
same  growth  in  the  same  time.  By  planting  a  pure  stand 
we  know  we  can  control  the  growth  of  trees  to  an  almost 
absolute  certainty,  and  such  control  is  of  more  value  than 
a  possible  avoidance  of  disease,  or  a  possible  injury  to  the 
forest  floor ;  and  with  our  present  dearth  of  knowledge  of 
the  peculiarities  of  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  our  timber  trees 
it  will  be  safe  to  plant  in  pure  stands,  or  in  mixed  stands  of 
equal  rapidity  of  growth.  Different  species  may  be  put  in 
clumps  or  clusters,  but  even  then  such  as  may  be  so  planted 
would  best  be  of  substantially  the  same  rapidity  of  growth, 
so  that  the  forest  will  mature  evenly  and  can  be  harvested 
on  a  systematic  rotation.^ 

^  An  illustration  of  the  result  of  mingling  fast-growing  species  with  slow- 
growing  ones  recently  came  under  the  author's  observation.  Several  rows  of 
Shortleaf  Pine  {Pinus  echinata)  and  Southern  Hard  Maples  of  the  same 
age  had  been  set  out  in  alternate  rows,  about  five  feet  apart,  in  an  aban- 
doned field,  at  the  same  time.  The  Maples  had  grown  vigorously  and  were 
from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high,  but  the  associated  Pines  were  substantially 
all  dead,  and  what  few  were  left  were  stunted  and  sickly.  Only  fifteen 
feet  from  the  outside  row  of  Maples  were  several  rows  of  Pines,  stand- 
ing alone,  which  were  of  the  same  age  as  the  others  and  had  been  planted 
at  the  same  time,  and  they  were  vigorous  and  fully  seven  feet  high.  The 
only  difference  in  treatment  had  been  that  when  alone  the  Pines  had  no 
faster  growing  companions  to  suppress  them  with  shade  or  rob  them  of  food 
or  moisture. 


VIII 

WHERE  AND   WHAT  TO  PLANT 

In  general  terms  the  area  of  the  United  States  may  be 
classed  as  tree-bearing  and  treeless  regions.  Much  of  the 
tree-bearing  portion  has  been  denuded  of  its  forest  cover 
to  allow  the  land  to  be  cultivated,  and  other  portions  to 
supply  the  needed  forest  products.  Except  in  the  case  of 
the  farmer's  woodlot  no  part  of  the  tree-bearing  area  that 
is  suitable  for  cultivation  should  be  reforested ;  but  it  is 
manifest  that  such  as  is  not  suitable  for  agriculture  would 
best  be,  and  to  choose  what  species  to  plant  on  any  given 
area  is  a  very  important  matter.  Broadly  speaking,  it 
would  be  safest  to  plant  such  as  originally  grew  there,  but 
that  is  not  always  easily  determined,  nor  would  it  always 
be  advisable. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  any  great  proportion  of  the 
nearly  five  hundred  species  of  trees  indigenous  to  the  United 
States  possesses  any  commercial  value  as  timber  trees,  or 
that  many  of  them  are  worthy  of  cultivation.  A  very  large 
majority  of  them  may  be  set  down  as  worthless  for  any 
economic  purpose  beyond  acting  as  a  cover  to  the  soil,  pre- 
venting erosion,  and,  to  some  extent,  aiding  in  bringing 
about  an  equable  flow  of  springs  and  streams.  Some  once 
esteemed  of  little  value  are  now  being  largely  used.  This 
arises  in  part  from  a  growing  scarcity  of  better  species,  in 
part  from  the  discovery  of  their  value  in  comparatively  new 
industries,  and  in  part  from  improved  methods  of  manu- 
facture ;  and  while  some  are  not  strictly  timber  trees  their 
value  for  other  purposes  gives  them  an  economic  import- 
ance that  should  not  be  ignored  when  considering  the  im- 
portant trees  of  our  country.  Combining  those  that  are 
useful  for  what  is  known  as  lumber  with  those  used  for 


60  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

other  purposes,  we  certainly  have  a  large  list  worthy  of 
consideration,  notwithstanding  that  we  must  discard  a  great 
number  of  species.  There  should  be  no  anxiety  felt  about 
that.  The  difficulty  lies  in  selecting  those  best  adapted  to 
the  soil,  situation,  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  area  to  be 
forested,  coupled  with  due  consideration  of  the  purposes 
for  which  they  are  to  be  planted,  and  the  demands  and 
needs  of  the  country  for  forest  products.  We  must  not 
overlook  the  fact  that  there  will  always  be  a  greater  de- 
mand for  certain  kinds  of  lumber  than  for  others,  and  this 
should  have  its  weight  in  determining  the  selection  of 
species.  As  is  well  known,  certain  species  of  trees  are  found 
in  certain  localities.  Such  localities  are  called  the  tree's 
natural  range  or  home.  A  tree  may,  and  frequently  will, 
grow  outside  of  that  locality,  and,  if  so,  this  enlarged  area 
is  known  as  its  botanical  range  —  a  region  in  which  it 
may  grow  fairly  or  equally  as  well  as  in  its  original  home. 
White  Pine  grows  as  well  in  Central  Europe  as  here,  its 
home,  while  our  Ked  Oak  becomes  more  valuable  there 
than  with  us. 

It  is  certainly  clear  that  in  choosing  a  species  one  native 
to  the  locality  should  be  selected,  or  one  that  will  grow  as 
well  as  in  its  native  home,  or  as  the  one  originally  occupy- 
ing the  ground ;  provided,  however,  that  the  tree  is  such 
as  will  meet  commercial  or  other  needs.  None  should  be 
chosen  without  careful  consideration.  It  may  be  thought 
that  specific  instructions  should  be  given  as  to  where  and 
what  to  plant.  That  would  be  impossible  to  do  safely  with- 
out personal  examination  of  the  designated  area.  Soil,  loca- 
tion, climate,  and  the  object  sought  must  all  be  taken  into 
consideration,  and  that  cannot  be  done  "at  arm's  length." 
In  describing,  in  the  following  pages,  the  various  species 
of  our  important  timber  trees  careful  effort  has  been  made 
to  set  forth  the  natural  range,  soil,  region  of  best  develop- 
ment, and  general  characteristics  of  each  species,  from 
which  the  attentive  reader  may  form  an  approximately  in- 
telligent opinion.  If,  after  a  thorough  study  of  the  case, 


WHERE   AND  WHAT  TO  PLANT  51 

which  should  include  an  investigation  of  the  species  of 
trees  that  formerly  occupied  the  ground,  he  still  have 
doubts,  it  would  be  best  to  call  in  an  educated  forester, 
just  as  he  would  any  other  professional  man  whose  services, 
on  account  of  his  own  lack  of  knowledge,  he  might  find 
himself  in  need  of ;  for  a  mistake  in  this  cannot  be  cor- 
rected. But  to  avoid  mistakes  and  achieve  success  the  future 
tree-grower  should  possess  a  general  knowledge  of  the  life- 
history  of  trees,  what  they  demand,  how  they  must  be 
grown  to  produce  valuable  lumber,  and  the  object  for 
which  any  one  or  more  species  should  be  planted.  To  a 
reasonable  degree  we  should  all  become  practical  foresters. 
We  must  not,  however,  neglect  to  speak  of  that  other 
portion  of  our  national  domain  known  as  the  treeless  re- 
gion. There  we  encounter  a  vastly  different  condition.  In 
a  large  portion  of  this  now  treeless  area  no  trees  can  be 
grown  except  by  irrigation.  This  is  owing  to  absence  of 
rainfall,  and  all  such  cases  must  be  considered  independently 
and  according  to  surrounding  conditions.  Then  there  are 
sections  of  the  country,  now  treeless,  where  trees  have  been, 
and,  no  doubt,  others  where  they  may  be,  profitably  planted 
and  prove  a  reasonable  success.  This  is  especially  true  of 
what  is  generally  known  as  the  central  treeless  region,  em- 
bracing part  of  the  states  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  the  prairie  district  of 
Minnesota,  and  portions  of  Oklahoma  and  Texas  lying  west 
of  the  hai'dwood  belt.  In  this  region  planting  is  generally  suc- 
cessful, but  experience  —  and  that  can  be  the  only  guide 

—  shows  that  there  are  but  few  species  suited  to  any  loca- 
tion, and  experience  must  be  the  guide  in  selecting  these. 
Throughout  that  region  trees  have,  thus  far,  been  planted 
for  shelter,  general  farm  purposes,  —  as  posts,  poles,  etc., 

—  and  fuel,  because  these  are  pressing  necessities,  and  rap- 
idly growing  species  have  been  chosen,  few  of  which  are  of 
much  importance  for  lumber.  The  list  is  mainly  composed 
of  Silver  Maple,  Cottonwood,  Black  Walnut,  Box  Elder, 
Willows,  Ash,  —  largely  Green  Ash,  —  Elms,  and  Hardy 


52  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Catalpa.  Few  of  the  conifers  —  the  softwoods  —  appear 
to  flourish  there,  European  Larch  doing  as  well  as  any. 
Fully  seventy  per  cent  of  the  plantations  is  of  the  broadleaf 
species.  The  tree-planter  in  that  region  should  carefully 
feel  his  way,  and  local  experience  should  be  his  guide. 
There  has  been  considerable  planting  done  in  the  states 
named,  much  of  which  has  been  successful,  and  in  deter- 
mining what  to  plant  this  success  should  be  of  value. 


IX 

WHEN  TO  HARVEST 

In  determining  the  age  and  dimensions  at  which  a  forest- 
grown  tree  should  be  harvested  for  lumber  there  are  cer- 
tain features  of  tree-growth  which  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, if  the  greatest  profit  is  to  be  realized.  These 
are  (1)  the  ratio  of  annual  increase  of  available  wood ;  (2) 
the  waste  in  manufacture  dependent  upon  size ;  (3)  the 
character  and  quality  of  the  lumber,  as  affected  by  age  and 
size ;  and  (4)  the  age  at  which  compound  interest  on  the 
investment  overtakes  the  increase  in  value,  whether  from 
growth  or  increase  in  price,  or  both.  The  first  may  be  de- 
termined mathematically,  assuming  that  conditions  of  taper 
of  stems  and  freedom  from  limbs  are  alike.  The  second 
and  third  may  be  approximately  determined  at  any  time, 
while  the  last  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  cost  of  the 
investment  and  value  of  the  product  in  market  at  the  time 
it  is  suggested  that  the  forest  be  cut. 

(1)  Except  for  a  few  unimportant  purposes  no  tree  can 
be  said  to  have  a  value  in  market  if  cut  when  it  is  less  than 
five  inches  in  diameter  two  and  one  half  feet  above  the 
ground,  a  size  when  it  may  be  said  to  enter  the  pole  stage. 
As  it  grows  above  that  size  it  can  be  used  for  various  pur- 
poses, and  the  number  of  these  purposes  increases  as  the 
tree  grows  larger  and  it  finally  passes  from  the  pole  and 
tie  class  and  enters  upon  that  of  the  sawmill  class.  At  all 
diameters  from  five  inches  up  to  the  time  of  its  maturity, 
the  amount  of  wood  the  tree  contains  plays  a  commanding 
part  when  determining  its  value  and  the  time  it  should  be 
cut,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  amount  and  the  ratio  of  the 
tree's  increase  is  essential  when  deciding  to  what  dimen- 


54 


IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 


slons  it  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  if  other  features  named 
do  not  interfere. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  increase  in  growth  and  to  de- 
termine the  ratio  of  that  increase,  it  will  be  assumed  that 
the  tree  selected  for  illustration  is  one  of  the  fa^t-growing 
species,  as  some  of  the  pines,  and  regularly  increases  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  each  year,  or  puts  on  an  an- 
nual layer  of  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  is 
manifest  that  a  slow-growing  tree  will  not  increase  in  con- 
tents as  rapidly,  but  the  ratio  of  increase,  when  based  on 
age,  will,  if  the  growth  is  uniform,  show  the  same  results. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  diameter  of  a  tree  at 


Diameter 

Age 

Square  of  Diame- 

Area of  Stump 

Increase 

lucbes 

Years 

ter,  Inches 

Square  Inches 

Timea 

5 

20 

25 

19.63 

0.00 

6 

24 

36 

28.27 

1.44 

7 

28 

49 

38.48 

1.96 

8 

32 

64 

60.26 

2.56 

9 

36 

81 

63.61 

3.24 

10 

40 

100 

78.54 

4.00 

11 

44 

132 

95.03 

4.84 

12 

48 

144 

113.09 

5.76 

13 

52 

169 

1.32.73 

6.76 

14 

66 

196 

153.93 

7.84 

15 

60 

225 

176.71 

9.00 

16 

64 

256 

201.06 

10.24 

17 

68 

289 

226.98 

11.56 

18 

72 

324 

254.46 

12.96 

19 

76 

361 

283.52 

14.44 

20 

80 

400 

314.16 

16.00 

every  inch  of  growth  from  five  up  to  twenty  inches,  the 
age  corresponding  to  such  diameter,  the  square  of  that  dia- 
meter, the  number  of  square  inches  in  area  where  the 
diameter  is  taken,  —  which  is  at  the  stump,  —  and  the  ra- 
tio of  increase  of  wood  contents  of  the  tree  from  the  five- 
inch  up  to  the  twenty-inch  diameter.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  ratio  of  increase  is  based  on  the  mathematical  fact  that 
the  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameters  —  in  this  case  that  of  the  tree's  stump.   Thus  a 


1 


SECOND-GROWTH   WHITE  PINE,   ABOUT  THIRTY   YEARS   OLD 
Jefferson  County,  Pennsylvania. 


WHEN  TO   HARVEST  55 

tree  with  a  diameter  of  five  inches  at  the  stump  contains 
only  one  fourth  as  much  wood  as  one  of  ten  inches,  for  the 
squares  of  their  diameters  are  in  that  ratio;  the  number  of 
square  inches  in  area  of  each  proves  the  fact,  and  the  same 
law  applies  to  all  other  dimensions.  For  instance :  a  tree 
twenty  inches  in  diameter  contains  1.77  times  more  wood 
than  one  fifteen  inches,  for  the  square  of  their  diameters 
and  the  number  of  square  inches  in  their  areas  are  in  that 
ratio.  The  application  of  this  rule  gives  an  easy  and  cer- 
tain method  of  determining  the  relative  values  of  different 
trees.  One  has  only  to  square  their  diameters  and  divide 
the  greater  by  the  less  to  determine  it.  An  examination 
of  the  table  shows  how  rapidly  the  available  wood  of  a  tree 
increases  by  age  and  the  importance  of  allowing  a  tree  to 
enlarge  its  diameter.  The  table  is  limited  to  eighty  years, 
for  the  annual  growth  usually  begins  to  lessen  then,  but 
the  principle  is  applicable  to  any  diameter,  irrespective  of 
age. 

(2)  Lumber  manufacturers  well  know  that  the  relative 
proportion  of  waste  in  slabs  and  edgings  is  much  greater  in 
a  small  than  in  a  large  log.  Most  of  them  use  rules  and 
tables  giving  the  number  of  board  feet  that  can  be  cut 
from  logs  of  given  sizes,  but  these  take  into  consideration 
all  kinds  of  waste,  such  as  crooks,  lack  of  cylindrical  form 
of  logs,  and  other  causes,  and  hence  such  will  not  serve 
our  purpose  here,  where  we  are  discussing  only  the  relative 
waste  arising  from  different  sizes.  It  is  a  mathematical 
fact  that  the  bark  surface  on  a  small  log  is  proportionally 
greater,  when  compared  with  its  contents,  than  on  a  large 
log.  The  ratio  of  waste  between  small  and  large  sizes  is 
the  reverse  of  that  of  the  wood  contents.  The  circumfer- 
ence —  the  bark  surface  —  of  a  log  twenty  inches  in  diam- 
eter is  only  twice  that  of  one  ten  inches,  while  the  con- 
tents —  the  wood  —  of  the  twenty-inch  log  is  four  times 
that  of  the  ten-inch  one,  which  fact  gives  an  approximate 
idea  of  the  relative  waste. 

(3)  As  the  ratio  of  waste  lessens  as  the  tree  advances  in 


56  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

size,  the  quality  and  character  of  the  lumber  cut  from  it 
increase  in  value.  This  is  generally  known  by  manufac- 
turers, dealers,  and  consumers.  Illustrating  this  fact,  Mr. 
Edward  A.  BrainifP,  in  Forest  Service  Bulletin  No.  73, 
page  20,  1906,  says :  "  The  quality  of  lumber  in  a  tree 
increases  rapidly  as  the  tree  increases  in  size.  An  eighteen 
inch  tree  would  hardly  be  profitable  to  cut  with  Yellow 
Poplar  averaging  $23  per  thousand.  At  nineteen  inches 
it  would  yield  an  average  profit  of  eighty-two  cents  per 
thousand;  twenty  inches,  $1.32;  at  twenty-one  inches, 
$1.99;  at  twenty-two  inches,  $2.67."  Without  doubt  part 
of  this  increase  in  value  comes  from  the  increased  propor- 
tion of  heartwood  to  sapwood,  and  part  from  some  chem- 
ical change  taking  place  in  the  former.  This  would  be  true 
of  all  the  pines  and  many  of  the  hardwoods.  The  change 
from  sapwood  to  heartwood  is  not  so  beneficial  in  some  of 
the  hardwoods,  especially  Sugar  Maple  and  the  Hickories, 
as  with  Walnuts,  Oaks,  Cherry  Gums,  and  some  others. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  value  of  wood  increases  with  the  age 
of  the  tree. 

(4)  To  determine  the  period  when  compound  interest  on 
the  investment  overtakes  the  accretion  in  a  planted  forest 
is  a  more  difficult  matter.  European  experience  shows  that 
from  the  time  of  planting  up  to  the  age  of  sixty  or  seventy 
years  for  Pine,  Spruce,  Larch,  and  some  other  conifers,  and 
sixty  or  seventy  for  broadleaf  trees,  the  accretion  is  greater 
in  value  than  the  accumulated  cost  of  planting,  care,  and 
compound  interest  on  the  investment,  but  that  after  the 
periods  named  the  interest  account  increases  more  rapidly 
than  the  value  of  the  annual  growth.  But  notwithstanding 
this  fact  the  cost  of  labor  and  the  price  of  forest  products 
in  the  markets  must  largely  if  not  entirely  prevail  in 
determining  when  to  harvest;  and  these  cannot  be  known 
until  met.  There  are  many  uses  for  wood  when  old  age  on 
the  part  of  the  trees  is  not  so  essential  as  it  is  for  saw  tim- 
ber, and  in  such  cases  harvesting  can  be  undertaken  much 
earlier.  Still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  to  cut  a  tree  for 


WHEN  TO  HARVEST  57 

one  railroad  tie  when,  by  waiting  a  few  years,  it  will  yield 
two  or  more,  or  cutting  wood  for  pulp  when,  by  waiting 
another  decade,  it  would  yield  more  than  twice  the  amount, 
ia  not  good  business. 


X 

THE   WOODLOT 

To  grow  trees  for  fuel  and  farm  purposes  is  just  as  much 
in  the  line  of  forestry  as  to  grow  them  for  lumber,  and  in 
some  respects  of  more  vital  importance,  especially  so  to  the 
farm-owners  of  the  country.  Fuel  is  an  absolute  necessity, 
and  while  it  is  abundant  at  present,  it  certainly  cannot  remain 
so  for  long.  More  than  two  thirds  of  our  people  use  wood 
for  fuel,  and  while  the  remainder  have  now  either  natural 
gas  or  coal  they  must  not  flatter  themselves  that  those  who 
are  to  come  after  them  will  long  be  blessed  with  an  ample 
supply  of  either  commodity.  In  fact,  it  is  well  known  that 
coal  and  gas  are  being  rapidly  exhausted,  and  in  many  sec- 
tions will  become  entirely  so  during  the  life  of  the  present 
generation.  Competent  authorities  put  the  limit  for  anthra- 
cite coal  at  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  years.  Long 
before  that  time  it  will  become  so  high-priced  as  to  be  be- 
yond the  reach  of  all  but  the  wealthy.  Even  our  immense 
fields  of  bituminous  coal  are  not  expected  to  last  much 
longer  than  the  middle  of  the  next  century.  As  it  has  largely 
been  in  the  past,  so  must  it  be  in  the  future,  that  wood  will 
be  the  main  dependence  for  fuel. 

The  National  Conservation  Commission  made  report  to 
President  Roosevelt  that  there  were  fully  one  hundred  mil- 
lion cords  of  wood  consumed  annually  in  this  country  for 
fuel  alone.  Supposing  that  from  the  average  acre  of  the 
woodlots  of  the  country  there  could  be  cut  twenty-five  cords, 
—  which  is  probably  too  high  an  estimate,  —  that  means 
the  equivalent  of  clearing  off  the  trees  from  four  million 
acres  of  land  per  annum  for  fuel  alone,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  amount  cut  for  posts,  poles,  or  other  timber  about  the 
farms. 


THE   WOODLOT  69 

Besides  the  fuel  that  the  farmer  must  have  he  stands  in 
constant  need  of  all  sorts  of  timber  for  general  farm  pur- 
poses, and  there  is  no  more  reason  why  he  should  send  far 
from  home  for  these  when  he  can  produce  them  on  his  own 
land  than  that  he  should  depend  upon  other  regions,  or  upon 
some  other  than  his  own  country,  for  his  food  supply.  It  is 
as  much  in  the  line  of  his  interests  to  grow  trees  as  to  grow 
hay,  grain,  or  other  farm  crops.  That  he  has  neglected  to  do 
this  in  many  sections  of  the  country,  and  is  still  neglecting 
it,  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  general  and  widespread  belief 
that  there  is  an  ample  supply  of  forest  products,  and  some 
to  spare,  and  that  there  need  be  no  effort  made  to  grow 
them.  But  if  he  has  not  already  learned  the  contrary  he 
soon  will.  Experience  will  be  a  dear  school  in  this  case,  and 
will  teach  him  what  observation  should  have  done  in  years 
gone  by.  Hereafter  he  must  grow  trees,  else  he  will  pay  a 
high  price  for  his  fuel  and  lumber,  or  go  without.  He  must 
accept  one  or  the  other  horn  of  the  dilemma,  and  it  is  for 
him  to  choose. 

It  is  undoubtedly  within  the  domain  of  fact  that  there  are 
not  five  farms  in  a  hundred  in  our  country  that  do  not  have 
on  them  from  one  to  twenty  or  more  acres  of  land  that  are 
practically  unfit  for  profitable  agriculture,  land  that  is 
unprofitable  for  cultivation  for  ordinary  crops,  but  is  well 
suited  for  growing  trees.  Steep  hillsides  should  never  be 
ploughed  if  it  can  be  avoided.  The  erosion  going  on  in  such 
cases  in  this  country  is  a  very  serious  matter.  We  hear 
much  of  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources,  but  in 
all  the  din  and  clamor  raised  over  their  destruction  but 
little  is  said  of  this  greatest  of  all  losses  —  that  of  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  by  erosion,  which  is  going  on  in  the  culti- 
vated and  barren  fields  of  this  country.  Yet  we  know  that 
every  year  adds  to  the  already  large  number  of  worn-out 
farms  in  the  older  sections,  and  the  loss  of  fertility  from 
erosion  is  far  greater  than  exhaustion  from  the  growth  of 
crops.  Whenever  a  stream  of  roily  water  flows  from  a  tract 
of  land  it  carries  with  it  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  soil. 


60  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

All  this  loss  of  fertility  of  land  unfitted  for  agriculture, 
yet  subject  to  serious  erosion,  can  be  avoided  by  planting 
it  to  trees ;  and  instead  of  its  growing  poorer  from  year  to 
year,  it  will  be  constantly  increasing  in  fertility,  and  a 
greater  profit  from  forest  products  will  be  secured  than  if 
cultivation  is  attempted. 

The  species  of  trees  of  which  a  woodlot  should  be  com- 
posed need  not  vary  far  from  those  suitable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  lumber.  It  is  true  that  not  all  such  are  the  best 
for  fuel ;  in  fact,  the  reverse  is  somewhat  the  case,  for  those 
which  grow  most  rapidly,  and  therefore  will  bring  the 
quickest  return  in  lumber,  do  not  make  the  best  fuel; 
yet  there  are  few  of  these  that  will  not  produce  a  very  fair 
article  if  the  wood  is  properly  seasoned  and  kept  under 
cover  after  being  cut.  Weight  for  weight  there  is  little 
difference  in  calorific  energy  in  the  wood  of  our  best 
timber  trees.  Such  species,  then,  should  be  chosen  for  the 
woodlot  as  will  best  serve  for  all  purposes,  —  for  lumber, 
fuel,  posts,  and  the  like.  Fitness  of  species  for  the  location 
must  be  a  paramount  consideration,  a  matter  discussed 
elsewhere.  So,  too,  the  method  of  growing  tree  plants  and 
transplanting  them  has  been  explained.  Such  treatment  as 
is  suitable  for  forest  culture  is  likewise  suitable  for  culture 
for  the  woodlot.  Trees,  however,  that  will  make  good  fuel 
when  advisable  to  cut  them,  may  be  profitably  grown  in 
rows  or  clumps  for  wind-screens,  but  such  will  not  be  worth 
much  for  lumber  because  studded  with  limbs  from  the 
ground  up. 

If  the  farmer  possesses  a  woodlot  of  any  sort  its  con- 
ditions and  possibilities  should  first  be  carefully  considered. 
It  may  be  possible  to  maintain  or  even  restore  it  by  natural 
reforestation,  if  not  too  badly  cut  over ;  but  the  chances  are 
largely  against  that  method.  To  bring  that  about  it  must 
be  a  close  approach  to  a  virgin  forest  or  one  in  which  the 
cutting  has  been  done  judiciously.  It  is  not  claimed  that 
selective  cutting  and  natural  regeneration  cannot  be  as 
successfully  carried  on  in  a  woodlot  as  in  a  virgin  forest, 


THE  WOODLOT  61 

but  such  a  condition  of  the  woodlots  of  our  country  as  would 
permit  that  does  not  prevail  to  any  great  extent ;  they  would 
last  for  a  time  but  fail  at  no  distant  period.  It  is  easy  to 
make  it  appear  from  returns  that  a  forest  or  woodlot  is 
paying  well,  but  if  either  is  cut  faster  than  it  grows  the 
end  is  bankruptcy.  When  there  is  not  a  full  stand  of  young 
growth,  properly  and  evenly  distributed,  the  end  must  come 
in  time,  and  that  time  will  be  determined  by  consumption. 

If  the  woodlot  has  been  pastured,  or  if,  from  other  causes, 
young  growth  has  been  destroyed,  hope  of  a  restoration  by 
natural  processes  should  not  be  entertained,  even  though 
seed  trees  may  be  left  standing,  as  the  probabilities  are  that 
grass  and  weeds  have  so  completely  invaded  the  forest  floor 
that  germination  of  seeds  will  seldom  occur,  if  at  all.  Under 
such  conditions  it  may  be  advisable  to  plant  trees  on  an 
entirely  new  piece  of  ground  fit  for  nothing  else,  or  to  renew 
the  stand  on  the  existing  one  by  growing  or  purchasing 
plants  and  setting  them  out  in  vacant  places.  Unfortunately 
the  practice  on  woodlots,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  is  to  cut  the 
best  instead  of  the  defective  trees.  Where  this  has  occurred 
it  may  and  doubtless  would  be  best  to  remove  all  or  much 
of  the  present  growth,  even  though  the  wood  be  cut  and 
carefully  stored  for  future  use,  and  then  plant  a  new  stand 
of  desirable  species.  It  will  be  frequently  found  that  a  few 
trees  with  wide-spreading  branches  may  shade  large  areas. 
Such  should  be  removed  to  give  light  to  any  growth  that 
may  be  coming  on  naturally,  or  that  may  be  planted.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  plant  certain  species  in 
partial  shade,  removing  the  overshadowing  ones  as  soon  as 
the  young  growth  indicates  a  necessity. 

No  special  methods  of  growing  a  woodlot  different  from 
those  for  growing  a  forest  for  timber  are  required.  The  same 
ends  are  to  be  sought  and  the  same  methods  should  prevail, 
for  the  same  principles  govern  in  each  case.  The  object 
in  each  is  to  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  valuable  wood 
products  in  the  least  time  and  at  the  least  expense.  The 
same  reasons  exist  for  planting  desirable  species  for  one  as 


62  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

for  the  other,  and  the  same  necessity  for  their  control  is 
ever  present.  There  can  be  little  question  but  that  the 
owner  of  a  woodlot  would  find  it  to  his  interest  to  clear  at 
once  more  or  less  of  it  of  any  worthless  stuff  that  may  be 
there  and  plant  trees  or  seeds  of  such  species  as  will  suit 
his  purijose  and  location.  There  is  no  more  reason  why  he 
should  permit  useless  trees  to  grow  in  his  woodlot  than  there 
is  for  permitting  weeds  to  grow  in  his  cultivated  fields. 

A  little  reflection  will  show  that  close  planting  in  the 
woodlot  will  be  equally  as  profitable  as  in  the  forest,  for 
the  reason  that  then  there  will  prevail  the  best  conditions 
for  merchantable  timber,  if  trees  are  left  for  that  purpose, 
and  the  thinnings  will  provide  fuel  and  wood  for  other  pur- 
poses. By  this  method  there  will  be  secured  the  fullest 
yield  possible.  To  leave  the  distribution  of  the  trees  to 
chance,  as  in  the  case  of  naturally  planted  forests,  should 
be  no  more  contemplated  than  for  a  farmer  to  use  a  seed 
drill  that  will  not  do  its  work  properly. 

The  restoration  and  perpetuation  of  the  woodlot  must  be 
the  work  of  its  owner.  He  cannot  afford  the  services  of  an 
expert  forester,  but  must  learn  for  himself  just  the  same, 
if  he  be  a  farmer,  as  he  has  learned  to  do  all  other  things 
connected  with  his  farm.  He  should  no  more  depend  on 
unaided  Nature  to  bring  forth  his  fuel,  posts,  poles,  lumber, 
and  other  forest  products  without  his  supervision  and  care 
than  he  should  depend  upon  her  to  provide  him  with  hay, 
grain,  and  fruit  without  his  direction  and  labor.  He  may 
and  should  be  able  to  grow  his  own  timber  and  fuel,  and 
some  to  dispose  of  to  others. 


XI 

LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE 

Preliminary  to  discussing  tree-life  it  may  be  interest- 
ing to  the  student  in  forestry  to  know  that  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  certain  laws  governing  its  growth  a  tree  can  be 
made  to  assume,  when  mature,  such  a  form  as  to  produce 
practically  all  desirable  forest  products  of  its  kind,  but  if 
left  to  chance  for  its  guidance  it  may  be  of  little  economic 
value.  In  one  case  it  may  be  tall,  straight,  and  free  from 
limbs  for  a  large  part  of  its  height,  while  in  the  other  it 
will  be  short  in  stem,  with  many  large  limbs  from  near  the 
ground  up.  In  one  the  wood  has  been  deposited  in  the 
stem  where  it  is  available  for  lumber,  and  in  the  other  in 
the  limbs  where  it  is  not.  Either  of  these  conditions  can 
be  brought  about  when  the  causes  which  produce  each  are 
understood  and  the  requisite  conditions  are  provided.  Na- 
ture produces  both  kinds  of  trees,  and  we  have  but  to 
choose  as  our  needs  demand  and  then  obey  her  laws. 

This  being  the  case  ai  knowledge  of  the  laws  governing 
tree-life  becomes  highly  essential,  and  profitably  to  grow 
and  care  for  a  forest  one  should  possess  a  general  know- 
ledge of  the  Life-History  of  a  Tree.  An  endeavor  to  give 
that  history  and  the  laws  which  govern  tree-growth  will  be 
here  made,  discarding  all  technical  terms  possible  and  using 
only  those  for  which  there  is  no  substitute. 

Flowers  and  Fruit.  The  life-history  of  a  tree  may  be 
said  to  begin  with  the  buds  which  produce  the  flowers  and 
fruit.  The  flower  may  be  what  is  termed  a  "  perfect "  one, 
—  capable  within  itself  of  producing  a  fertile  seed,  —  or 
the  organs  which  perform  the  functions  of  fertilization  may 
be  in  separate  flowers,  one  bearing  stamens  and  the  other 
pistils,  being  termed  respectively   staminate  (male)  and 


64  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

pistillate  (female).  The  staminate  flowers  furnish  the  pol- 
len or  fecundating  dustlike  substance  which  fertilizes  the 
ovary  or  seed  of  the  pistillate  flower.  A  grain  of  this  pollen 
must  in  some  way  come  in  physical  contact  with  an  ovary 
of  the  pistillate  flower  or  there  will  be  no  fertile  seed. 
When  mature  the  pollen  is  borne  from  the  staminate  to 
the  pistillate  flower  by  winds  or  insects,  such  as  flies,  wasps, 
bees,  moths,  butterflies,  and  the  like.  Nature  is  very  prodi- 
gal in  the  supply  of  pollen.  Probably  more  than  a  million 
grains  are  furnished  where  only  one  does  any  work.  Not 
only  is  there  an  enormous  amount  of  pollen  in  each  male 
flower,  but  there  are  far  more  male  than  female  flowers  on 
most  trees.  This  is  particularly  so  with  Walnut,  Hickory, 
Chestnut,  and  White  Pine.  Some  of  our  valuable  timber 
trees,  as  Yellow  Poplar  (Tulip-tree),  Basswood,  and  Elm, 
have  perfect  flowers,  but  on  most,  as  with  all  the  Pines, 
Oaks,  Hickories,  Chestnuts,  and  others,  the  male  flowers 
are  borne  on  separate  sprays  of  the  same  tree,  yet  there 
are  some  species  in  which  only  male  flowers  are  borne  on 
one  tree  and  only  female  on  another.  This  is  notably  so 
with  the  Ashes  and  Poplars. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  When  the  pistillate  flower  is  fertil- 
ized the  seed  grows  on  to  maturity,  ripens,  and  is  ready  to 
be  cast  off  from  the  parent  tree  and  begin  its  independent 
active  life  in  the  reproduction  of  its  kind.  But  to  do  this 
the  seed  must  be  scattered  where  its  surroundings  are  suit- 
able and  congenial  for  its  growth,  and  come  in  contact  with 
the  mineral  soil  where  it  can  germinate  and  grow.  How  the 
selection  of  a  suitable  place  in  which  to  grow  comes  about 
through  natural  processes  is  very  interesting.  If  not  scat- 
tered there  would  be  no  extension  of  the  forests.  If  no 
provisions  were  made  for  this  the  seeds  would  fall  under 
the  parent  tree  where,  if  they  should  germinate,  they  could 
not  live  long  for  want  of  light,  moisture,  and  food.  But 
Nature  has  amply  provided  for  the  spread  of  seeds,  as  has 
already  been  noted.  In  a  large  class  of  trees — in  which 
are  nearly  all  the  conifers  and  many  broadleaf  trees  —  she 


':B^i£S!Sf^^^ 


SEEDLING  WHITE  ASH,  ONE         SPRAY  AND  STAMINATE  BLOSSOMS  OF 
YEAR    OLD     SHOWING   DE-  AVHITE  PINE 

VELOPMENT  OF  TAP-ROOT 


DEVELOPMENT   OF    WHITE    PtNE   SEKDS 

At  right  are  staminate  blossoms,  next  pistillate  blossoms,  then  mature  cone, 
and  at  extreme  left  open  cone  with  scale  below  showing  seeds. 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  66 

has  given  wings  to  the  seeds  so  that  when  they  are  ripe  and 
fall  the  winds  will  blow  them  away  to  other  localities.  In 
some  cases,  as  with  the  Aspens,  Willows,  and  Birches,  they 
are  borne  miles  from  their  native  place,  thus  permitting 
undesirable  trees  to  spread  themselves  and  crowd  out  more 
valuable  ones.  With  another  class,  the  nut-bearing  trees, 
she  calls  in  various  animals  —  squirrels,  mice,  bii-ds,  etc.  — 
to  spread  the  seeds.  These,  in  their  endeavor  to  store  food, 
drop  the  seeds  on  the  way  to  their  storehouses,  or  bury 
them,  and  through  loss  of  memory  of  the  location,  or  by 
some  accident  or  fright,  the  seeds  are  left  to  germinate  and 
grow.  Small  fruit,  cherries  and  the  like,  are  eaten  by  the 
birds  and  thus  scattered,  as  the  hard  kernel  in  the  shell  of 
the  fruit  can  pass  through  their  digestive  apparatus  unin- 
jured and  even  seem  to  germinate  the  better  for  such 
treatment.  To  add  to  the  certainty  of  reproduction.  Nature 
supplies  a  vastly  greater  number  of  seeds  than  are  needed. 
If  one  in  ten  thousand  grows  she  is  satisfied.  But  man  can 
aid  her  by  gathering  them  and  planting  as  many  as,  and 
no  more  than  are  required,  thus  subjecting  reproduction  to 
comparative  certainty  while  practicing  economy,  both  of 
which  she  seems  to  scorn. 

Germination.  When  the  seed  is  fully  ripened  and  lodged 
in  a  fit  place,  and  the  demands  for  moisture,  temperature, 
and  covering  complied  with,  the  germ  —  the  life-producing 
feature,  about  which  we  know  absolutely  nothing  except 
its  manifestation — asserts  its  personality  and  begins  the 
development  of  the  tree.  This  bursting  into  life  is  called 
germination.  At  first  a  growth  is  thrown  downward  into 
the  ground  to  obtain  the  necessary  mineral  food  and  water, 
and  this  movement  is  soon  after  succeeded  by  another  up- 
ward into  the  air,  there  to  secure  certain  food  from  the  at- 
mosphere and  to  enjoy  light.  The  first  or  downward  growth 
is  called  the  root  development,  and  the  other  —  the  unfold- 
ing of  the  stem  or  trunk,  with  its  branches  and  leaves  — 
the  crown  development.  For  a  time  the  growth  of  both 
root  and  stem  is  sustained  by  food  that  has  been  stored  ia 


66  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

the  seed  during  its  growth  from  the  fertilized  ovary  to  ma- 
turity, the  same  as  a  bird  or  a  chicken  will  live  for  the  first 
few  days  of  its  life  on  the  substance  of  the  egg  from  which 
it  sprung. 

The  root  insists  on  darkness  and  the  stem  on  light,  and 
neither  can  be  made  to  abandon  that  determination,  nor 
can  the  root  be  made  to  grow  upward  or  the  stem  down- 
ward. The  functions  of  the  root  are  twofold.  One  is  to 
gather  the  moisture  —  the  sap  —  and  with  it  the  necessary 
mineral  food  held  in  solution  therein  —  potash,  lime,  phos- 
phoric acid,  etc.  —  which  constitute  approximately  one  half 
the  weight  of  the  tree,  and  to  send  these  up  through  the 
little  pores  or  ducts  in  the  roots,  stem,  and  branches  to  the 
leaves,  where  they  meet  with  the  food  the  leaves  gather 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  where  the  two  combine  and  are 
practically  digested  through  the  agency  of  a  green  sub- 
stance known  as  chlorophyl,  —  a  process  which  is  wonder- 
ful and  not  fully  understood,  —  producing  a  perfect  food 
for  stem,  limbs,  roots,  bark,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  to 
each  of  wliich  it  is  sent  in  a  mysterious  way.  The  other 
function  of  the  root  is  to  hold  the  ti'ee  upright. 

As  the  roots  penetrate  the  soil  they  throw  out  little  hairs 
covered  with  microscopic  mouths  to  suck  in  the  moisture 
containing  the  dissolved  mineral  food  which  they  seek  ;  and 
the  roots  travel  abroad  in  the  ground  in  search  of  it,  going 
a  great  distance.  A  tree  growing  in  the  open  will  send  its 
roots  out  as  far  as,  and  sometimes  farther  than,  its  limbs 
extend,  while  they  have  been  known  to  go  downward  more 
than  twenty  feet.  After  a  season's  growth  these  little  hairs 
mainly  die  and  the  tree  takes  a  rest,  and  in  a  certain  class 
called  deciduous  trees  the  leaves  die  also  and  drop  off  an- 
nually. With  some  evergreens  the  leaves  stay  on  several 
years,  but  all  of  our  timber  trees,  except  those  gi'owing  in 
the  tropics,  insist  on  taking  a  rest  a  part  of  each  year.  Few 
new  hairs  with  their  cells  grow  on  that  portion  of  the  roots 
once  occupied  by  them,  but  a  new  growth  of  roots  must 
take  place  each  year,  springing  out  from  those  of  former 


LIFE-HISTORY   OF  A  TREE  67 

years;  thus  the  roots  become  elongated,  but  in  a  different 
manner  from  what  occurs  with  the  limbs.  The  new  growth 
of  roots,  as  well  as  that  of  the  buds,  leaves,  twigs,  bark,  etc., 
of  the  stem,  is  furnished  with  food  —  until  the  little  hairs 
can  begin  their  work  in  the  spring  —  that  had  been  stored 
up  in  the  cambium  layer  on  the  stem,  limbs,  and  roots  dur- 
ing the  late  growth  of  the  previous  year,  substantially  the 
same  as  food  had  been  provided  in  the  seed  for  the  young 
to  subsist  on  until  the  leaves  are  developed  and  all  the  func- 
tions of  tree-life  have  become  active.  In  order  to  protect 
themselves  from  injury  the  roots,  as  well  as  stem  and 
branches,  put  on  a  coat  of  bark. 

The  Sap.  The  circulation  of  the  sap  of  a  tree  —  the  water 
with  mineral  food  in  solution  gathered  from  the  ground  by 
the  little  rootlets  and  carried  upward  and  outward  to  the 
extremity  of  the  branches  —  is  more  wonderful,  more  com- 
plicated, and  less  understood  than  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  animals.  In  animal  life  the  muscular  heart  liter- 
ally pumps  the  blood  through  the  arteries,  at  the  same  time 
drawing  it  from  the  veins.  In  animals  there  are  separate 
channels  for  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  one  for  the  incoming 
to  the  heart  and  the  other  for  the  outgoing;  but  it  is  not 
known,  though  it  is  probable,  that  some  certain  ones  of  the 
pores  or  ducts  in  the  wood  of  trees  serve  as  passageways  for 
the  sap  and  mineral  food  to  the  leaves  and  others  for  its 
return  to  appropriate  places  after  digestion.  It  is  done  in 
some  way,  but  we  do  not  know  just  how ;  possibly  the  di- 
gested food  is  carried  back  through  pores  in  the  live  bark. 
Neither  is  there  anything  akin  to  a  pump  to  be  discovered 
in  a  tree  or  other  plant  life.  The  roots  take  in  water,  and 
by  some  unknown  process,  it  climbs  upward  to  the  tops  of 
the  tallest  trees,  apj^arently  as  easily  as  it  does  in  a  diminu- 
tive plant.  Redwood  trees  are  frequently  found  three  hun- 
dred feet  in  heiglit.  A  column  of  water  that  high  will  pro- 
duce a  pressure  at  the  base  of  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Evidently  there  are  resting- 
places  along  the  way,  or  something  that  shuts  off  the  pres- 


68  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

sure,  or  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  wood  would  be  ruptured. 
Just  how  this  ascent  of  sap  to  such  great  heights  as  we 
know  it  attains  is  brought  about  we  do  not  yet  understand. 
There  are  various  explanations,  but  each  one  of  them  has  a 
weak  link  in  its  chain.^  Notwithstanding  that  we  can  see  no 
active  life  in  a  tree  in  winter-time,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the 
sap  ascends  then,  for  if  from  any  cause,  such  as  dry  or  deeply 
frozen  ground,  moisture  cannot  be  obtained  by  the  roots 
for  a  long  time,  the  tree  will  frequently  be  killed,  because 
evaporation  goes  on  through  the  pores  in  the  bark  and,  in 
the  case  of  evergreens,  through  the  stomata  or  breathing- 
pores  in  their  leaves. 

Stems  and  Leaves.  Having  now  seen  the  functions  and 
the  growth  of  the  roots,  attention  will  be  given  to  the  stem 
and  leaves  to  see  what  part  they  play  in  the  economy  of 
tree-life.  The  ascent  of  the  sap  to  the  leaves,  carrying  with 
it  the  mineral  food,  has  already  been  noted,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  leaves  and  the  functions  they  perform  will  be 
necessary  to  comprehend  fully  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and 
especially  the  character  of  the  stem  from  which  lumber 
must  be  cut.  The  leaves  of  all  trees  have  a  framework  of 
fibrous  material  called  veins.  The  largest  of  them  are  pro- 
minent and  plainly  visible  to  the  unaided  eye.  In  broadleaf 
trees  they  are  quite  so.  Close  inspection  will  show  that  in 
some  leaves  there  is  a  fine  network  of  them.  This  network 
is  technically  called  the  leaf's  venation.  These  veins  are  in- 
closed between  two  films  known  as  the  epidermis  or  leaf's 
skin.  There  are  small  holes  in  the  skin  of  the  leaves,  and 
in  broadleaf  trees  they  are  much  more  numerous  on  the 
under  than  on  the  upper  side,  but  in  some  of  the  conifers 
there  are  about  as  many  on  one  side  as  the  other.  They  are 

^  "  The  principal  eanse  of  the  upward  movement  of  water  is  unknown. 
The  most  divergent  views  are  held,  not  one  of  which  has  proved  capable  of 
satisfactory  demonstration.  ...  It  is  hardly  possible  to  deny  the  existence 
of  root  pressure,  capillarity,  and  the  lifting-  power  of  evaporation  and  osmotic 
pressure.  The  relative  importance  of  these,  the  manner  in  which  they  work, 
and  the  existence  of  other  factors  are  points  that  it  is  impossible  to  settle  at 
present."  —  Plant  Physiology  and  Ecology,  by  Frederick  Edward  Clementa, 
PLD.,  page  56. 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  69 

not  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  as  they  range  in  number  from 
800  to  150,000  to  the  square  inch,  varying  with  species. 
The  name  stomata  has  been  given  them,  and,  as  will  be 
seen,  these  little  holes  play  an  important  part  in  producing 
trees  that  will  yield  good  lumber.  Through  them  is  admitted 
air  where  it  comes  in  contact,  in  the  chlorophyl,  with  the 
sap  sent  up  by  the  roots  and  distributed  throughout  the 
leaf  by  the  numerous  veins.  In  some  way,  through  the  ac- 
tion of  the  chlorophyl,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  is  min- 
gled with  the  other  gases  of  the  atmosphere  and  named  car- 
bon-dioxide, combines  with  the  mineral  substance  brought 
up  in  the  sap,  and  these  inorganic  substances  are  changed  inta 
organic  ones.  They  are,  practically,  digested  and  converted 
into  available  food,  which  neither  was  before  the  combina- 
tion took  place.  Just  how  this  is  done  is  not  known,  nor  as 
stated,  is  it  fully  understood  in  what  manner,  or  through 
what  channels  this  prepared  food  is  sent  back  from  the 
leaves  through  or  along  the  stem  and  all  the  branches  and 
roots,  leaving  in  their  proper  places  in  its  passage  such 
particular  food  as  goes  to  make  wood,  bark,  leaves,  buds, 
flowers,  and  fruit. 

The  Stomata  as  Breathing-Pores.  In  addition  to  ad- 
mitting the  air  to  the  chlorophyl  lying  between  the  two 
surfaces  of  the  leaves,  the  stomata  serve  to  let  the  excess 
of  water,  which  was  necessary  to  carry  the  mineral  food 
from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  evaporate  and  escape.  This  is 
called  respiration,  and  the  amount  of  water  some  trees  give 
off  when  growing  vigorously  is  astonishing.  They  also  serve 
to  let  the  oxygen,  which  has  been  rejected  in  the  process  of 
preparing  the  food,  escape,  thus  literally  serving  as  breath- 
ing-organs or  mouths.  The  main  difference  between  tree 
and  animal  breathing  is  that  the  tree  exhales  the  oxygen 
and  retains  the  carbon,  while  the  animal  rejects  the  carbon 
and  retains  the  oxygen.  If  the  tree  could  not  throw  off  the 
oxygen,  it  would  be  practically  smothered  and  would  die, 
while  the  same  end  would  come  to  the  animal  if  it  could 
not  get  rid  of  the  carbon. 


70  IMPORTANT   TIMBER   TREES 

The  Stomata  must  have  Light.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  stomata,  the  little  pores  in  the  skin  of  the  leaf, 
literally  serve  as  mouths  to  take  in  air  —  a  portion  of 
which  is  consumed  as  food  —  and  reject  what  is  not  suit- 
able, and  that  they  also  permit  the  escape  of  the  surplus 
sap  that  comes  to  the  leaves  from  the  roots.  But  all  this  is 
neither  so  wonderful  nor  so  important  as  the  further  fact 
that  they  must  have  light  in  which  to  do  their  work.  They 
close  in  the  absence  of  light  and  open  only  as  light  is  given 
them.  At  first  thought  this  feature  will  appear  of  little 
moment,  but,  when  fully  understood,  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
has  a  controlling  influence  in  the  production  of  merchant- 
able lumber.  When  trees  are  grown  in  the  open,  ample 
light  comes  to  all  their  branches,  or,  at  least,  to  their  ex- 
tremities ;  but  when  crowded  and  the  leaves  on  their  limbs 
are  deprived  of  light,  those  so  deprived  are  literally  starved 
to  death,  for  the  stomata  are  closed  and  no  carbon  can 
mingle  with  the  mineral  ingredients  to  form  food,  nor  can 
the  poisonous  oxygen  be  exhaled.  The  result  is  that  tl>e 
limbs  that  are  deprived  of  light  are  not  only  starved  but 
actually  smothered  ;  and  consequently  die,  decay,  and  drop 
off,  leaving  a  smooth  stem  free  from  limbs  and  knots,  from 
which  first-class  lumber  can  be  cut. 

A  tree  grown  in  the  open,  where  neither  roots  nor 
branches  are  crowded  in  any  way,  will  naturally  throw  out 
limbs  soon  after  emerging  from  the  ground,  and  these  will 
grow  until  deprived  of  light  by  limbs  springing  out  above 
and  reaching  bej^ond  them.  A  struggle  for  light  is  then 
begun  and  each  limb  naturally  seeks  to  obtain  it  and  con- 
sequently lengthens ;  but  the  small  branches,  which  in  the 
early  life  of  the  limb  had  light,  are  more  or  less  deprived 
of  it  and  die,  with  the  result  that  the  foliage  of  the  tree  is 
mainly  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  limbs,  which  are  frequently 
long  and  large.  Such  trees  yield  but  little  lumber,  for  the 
wood  is  largely  in  the  limbs  instead  of  in  the  body  of  the 
tree,  and  what  it  does  yield  is  of  little  value,  for  it  is  filled 
with  lar<re  knots. 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  71 

If  light  cannot  be  obtained  for  the  lower  limbs,  the  stems 
climb  ujiward  to  secure  it  and  tall  trees  free  of  limbs  near 
the  ground  are  the  result.  As  there  is  a  continual  struggle 
for  light  and  food,  it  is  the  province  of  forestry  so  to  reg- 
ulate conditions  that  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  with- 
out unnecessary  expenditure  of  effort  or  exhaustion  of 
vitality  of  the  tree,  and  at  the  same  time  to  encourage  the 
struggle  sufficiently  to  secure  the  desired  end.  In  other 
words,  to  so  arrange  for  light,  mineral  food,  and  moisture 
that  the  surviving  trees  will  not  be  compelled  to  wage  a 
greater  warfare  in  suppressing  weaker  ones  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  produce  the  requisite  character  of  lum- 
ber. This  can  be  done  by  proper  planting  and  thinning. 

Growth  of  Wood  and  Bark.  As  the  substance  required 
for  wood  goes  back  from  the  leaves  there  goes  with  it  that 
which  makes  the  bark,  and  while  a  layer  of  wood  is  de- 
posited on  the  outside  of  the  stem,  branches,  and  roots 
each  year,  —  we  are  considering  only  those  trees  which  thus 
make  their  growth,  the  exogens,  for  they  are  the  only  real 
timber  trees,  —  there  is  likewise  a  thin  layer  of  bark  de- 
posited, which,  however,  is  separated  from  the  wood  by  what 
is  botanically  known  as  the  Cambium  Layer,  a  viscid  secre- 
tion that  intervenes  between  the  last  formed  layers  of  wood 
and  bark.  This  layer  not  only  separates  the  wood  and  bark, 
but  at  the  end  of  the  season's  growth  serves  as  a  store- 
house for  food  on  which  the  buds  and  roots  draw  in  the 
beginning  of  the  next  year's  growth,  or  until  the  leaves  and 
roots  are  developed  enough  to  themselves  obtain  food  from 
the  atmosphere  and  soil.  The  wood  deposited  is  known, 
when  mature,  as  the  Annual  Rings.  These  are  very  dis- 
tinct in  some  species,  but  quite  obscure  in  others,  and  in 
some  tropical  species  not  discernible  in  either  wood  or  bark. 
In  most  of  our  timber  trees  the  wood  first  deposited  is  por- 
ous—  filled  with  ducts  and  cells  for  the  flow  of  sap.  These 
are  conspicuous  in  some  species,  as  in  Ash,  Oak,  Chest- 
nut, Elm,  and  some  others.  This  cellular,  first-deposited 
accretion  is  denominated  the  Spring  Wood.  As  the  sea* 


72      ,  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

son  advances  the  number  of  cells  lessen  and  the  wood  becomes 
much  more  compact  and  in  most  species  harder,  and  this 
is  called  the  Summer  Wood.  In  some  species  there  is  such 
a  distinction  in  color,  porosity,  and  density  between  the 
spring  and  summer  wood  that  the  annual  rings  can  be  dis- 
tinguished without  difficulty,  and  these  features  more  or 
less  affect  the  character  of  the  wood.  As  a  rule  the  annual 
rings  indicate  the  age  of  the  tree,  but  not  always.  If  a 
drouth  occurs  in  midsummer,  growth  will  be  arrested,  and 
apparently  a  normal  ring  will  be  formed ;  but  if  wet  and 
warm  weather  then  succeeds,  growth  will  be  resumed,  and 
another  but  thinner  ring  will  be  laid  on  quite  similar  to  the 
first.  This,  however,  does  not  frequently  occur,  and  the 
number  of  rings  is  a  fair  guide  to  the  age  of  the  tree. 

Heartwood  and  Sapwood.  While  carrying  the  min- 
eral ingredients  of  the  tree's  food  to  the  leaves  the  sap  is 
restricted  in  its  passage,  possibly  in  part  to  the  live  portion 
of  the  bark,  but  mainly  to  a  limited  number  of  the  young- 
est annual  layers  of  wood.  These  vary  in  number  with  the 
species  of  trees,  and  also  with  the  conditions  environing 
each  individual  tree  of  any  given  species,  but  as  a  rule 
they  are  quite  uniform  in  each  species.  That  portion  of  the 
tree  through  which  the  sap  passes  is  called  the  Sapwood. 
After  serving  for  a  time  for  the  purposes  named,  a  change 
takes  place  in  the  innermost  ring  of  the  sapwood  and  the 
sap  no  longer  flows  through  it,  and  it  then  becomes  what  is 
known  as  Heartwood.  After  this  change  occurs,  that  por- 
tion of  the  tree  ceases  to  perform  any  life  functions.  For 
nearly  all  purposes  it  is  dead,  and  the  only  service  it  there- 
after renders  is  to  support  the  growing  portion  of  the  tree 
and  prevent  its  destruction  by  winds.  All  the  heartwood, 
as  it  frequently  does,  may  decay  and  the  tree  remain  alive 
and  be  nothing  but  a  shell  of  sapwood.  In  most  species 
the  color  of  the  heartwood  is  darker  than  that  of  the  sap- 
wood,  but  not  in  all,  for  in  some  the  reverse  is  the  case, 
and  in  others  there  is  very  little  or  no  difference. 

For  nearly  all  purposes  heartwood  is  preferred  to  sap- 


C^^WZ 


Section  of  a  White  Pine  Board  sixteen  feet  lone,  withont  wane  or  sap. 
nearly  free  from  knols.  Annual  riii«s  at  stump  showed  tree  to  have 
been  seventy-Hve  years  old.   Tioga  County,  rennsylvania. 


Buuiuer  wood.    Southern  Virginia. 


Seetion  of  Car.. Una  Poi.Uir  six  years  old. 
Annual  rinys  iiulualed  liy  ligures;  inter- 
mediate rinj;s  caused  tiy  alternate  wet 
and  dry  weather.  Note  liow  irrefiiilarly 
lie;)rl  wood  is  sha|>ed.  Keynoldsville,  Jel- 
leison  County,  Pennsylvania. 


Seetion  of  White  Ash  sixty-eight  years  old  :  roots  on  sfde 
of  least  growth  were  deprived  of  air  and  moisture  by 
watertight  brick  pavement,  .state  Capitol  ('.rounds,  Har- 
risburK,  Pennsylvania.— four/ eiy  v/  Pennsylvania  De- 
partment of  Forestrv. 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  73 

wood.  The  former  is  more  durable  when  exposed,  is  stronger, 
shrinks  less  in  drying,  and  is  heavier  and  more  compact, 
the  latter  feature  arising,  no  doubt,  from  the  pores  and 
ducts  being  filled  with  gums  or  other  solid  matter.  There 
appears  to  be  some  irregularity  in  the  change  from  sapwood 
to  heartwood,  but  just  why  is  not  known.  Practically  all 
species  are  subject  to  it.  Usually  as  a  new  ring  of  sapwood 
is  laid  on  there  is  an  inner  one  changed  to  heartwood ;  but 
this  does  not  invariably  occur,  as  some  trees  of  the  same 
species  may  and  do  have  more  sapwood  than  others,  and 
more  towards  the  top  than  at  the  butt,  or  the  reverse,  and 
even  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  With  some  spe- 
cies of  trees  this  change  to  heartwood  does  not  occur  until 
the  tree  reaches  thirty  or  even  seventy-five  years  of  age, 
while  in  others  there  are  seldom  more  than  six  or  seven 
annual  rings  of  that  kind  of  wood.  They  generally  lessen 
in  number  proportionally  in  all  species  as  the  tree  reaches 
maturity  and  old  age.  The  whole  matter  appears  to  be  in- 
volved in  more  or  less  mystery.  It  appears  to  be  an  effort 
of  Nature  to  discard  that  for  which  there  is  no  further  use, 
just  as  she  discards  the  dead  outer  scales  of  bark. 

Pith  and  Medullary  Rays.  Another  interesting  feature 
in  tree-growth  is  the  pith  in  the  centre  of  the  stem  and  all 
the  limbs,  and  the  thin  sheets  or  rays  radiating  therefrom. 
The  pith  is  a  small,  porous,  and  somewhat  spongy  cylinder 
of  cellular  tissue,  and  what  purpose  it  serves  in  the  economy 
of  the  tree's  life  is  not  fully  known,  if  at  all.  The  glassy 
sheets  radiating  from  the  pith  are  technically  known  as  the 
Medullary  Rays.  They  are  harder  than  the  pith  and  some- 
times harder  than  the  surrounding  wood.  They  can  be 
found  in  all  of  our  timber  trees,  but  are  more  conspicu- 
ous in  some  than  in  others,  and  where  plainly  visible  are 
deemed  to  add  beauty  to  the  wood  when  it  is  used  for  inter- 
ior finish  and  furniture.  They  do  not  run  uninterruptedly 
the  entire  length  of  the  tree,  but  are  broken  up  into  short, 
irregular  patches  and  are  seldom  more  than  six  or  seven 
inches  long.  The  major  portion  of  them  radiate  from  and 


74  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

are  connected  with  the  pith,  although  broken  more  or  les3 
as  they  recede  therefrom.  The  microscope  shows,  however, 
that  all  are  not  connected  with  the  pith.  They  show  inde- 
pendently in  the  bark  of  some  species.  The  common  names 
given  them  are  "  mirrors"  and  "silver  sheens."  It  is  well 
known  that  most  woods  will  split  more  evenly  and  readily 
on  lines  radiating  from  the  centre  than  tangentially.  This 
is  undoubtedly  brought  about  by  the  medullary  rays.  It  is 
also  known  that  in  seasoning,  woods  begin  to  check  in  these 
rays. 

The  Bark.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  when  the  di- 
gested food  travels  back  from  the  leaves  and  puts  on  a  layer 
of  wood  on  the  stem,  branches,  and  roots,  it  also  gives  a 
layer  of  suitable  material  to  the  inside  of  the  bark  on  both 
stem  and  root  development.  This  is  necessary  because  the 
size  of  all  parts  is  constantly  increasing  and  more  expanse 
of  bark  is  required  each  year  to  cover  the  whole.  As  the 
tree  grows  the  distance  around  it  increases,  and  as  the  bark 
is  only  slightly  elastic  it  necessarily  cracks,  and  new  bark 
must  be  grown  or  the  tender  wood  will  be  exposed  and  the 
cambium  layer  so  interfered  with  that  a  new  layer  of  wood 
cannot  be  grown  through  its  good  offices.  As  the  inner 
rings  of  the  sapwood  practically  die  as  they  change  to  heart- 
wood  and  perform  no  further  functions  in  the  life  of  the 
tree  than  that  of  protection,  so  a  similar  change  takes  place 
in  the  bark,  except  that  the  outer  layer  dies  and  a  new  inner 
one  is  formed,  the  latter  serving  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
designed,  which  is  that  of  aiding  in  the  distribution  of  food 
and  protecting  the  parts  it  covers  from  injur3%  It  must  be 
admitted  that  some  of  the  functions  of  the  bark  are  not  yet 
fully  understood,  but  enough  is  known  to  determine  pretty 
well  what  takes  place.  As  already  stated,  there  is  an  an- 
nual addition  to  the  inside  of  the  bark,  and  for  a  time  in  the 
life  of  a  young  tree  there  is  no  death  of  any  bark  layers ; 
but  as  the  stem,  branches,  and  roots  grow  the  bark  fails 
to  expand  with  the  growth,  and  tlie  outer  or  oldest  layer 
cracks,  and  when  that  occurs  the  death  of  such  layer  fol- 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  75 

lows,  but  a  new  one  is  taken  on  at  the  same  time.  Some- 
times the  dead  layer  falls  off  annually,  as  with  the  Syca- 
more and  Paper  Birch,  but  generally  it  changes  into  a  corky 
condition  and  adheres  as  the  tree  expands.  As  this  occurs 
the  dead  parts  arrange  tlieraselves  in  more  or  less  vertical 
valleys  and  ridges,  although  in  some  trees  the  dead  bark 
cracks  irregularly  and  in  patches,  in  which  case  it  generally 
falls  off  in  scales  in  a  few  years  after  its  death  ;  hence  some 
trees  show  a  thinner  bark  than  others.  The  inner  layers 
are  called  the  live  and  the  outer  ones  the  dead  bark.  There 
is  quite  a  plain  line  of  demarcation  between  them. 

In  some  species  the  annual  layers  are  much  thicker  than 
in  others  and  are  distinctly  shown  in  the  dead  bark  when 
cut  radially  from  the  heart  of  the  tree.  The  bark  of  some 
trees  contains  chemical  properties,  such  as  tannic  acid  — • 
an  astringent  much  used  in  tanning  leather  —  and  other  use- 
ful ingredients,  and  on  that  account  may  have  a  commercial 
value.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Hemlock  and  some  of  the  Oaks,  notably  the  Chestnut  Oak. 
While  the  live  bark  is  the  most  heavily  charged  with  tannin 
it  does  not  rapidly  disappear  from  the  dead  bark.  Old  Hem- 
lock bark  retains  its  tannin  for  a  long  time. 

An  interesting  experiment  which  discloses  something  of 
the  process  in  the  deposition  of  the  material  constituting 
the  Ijark  may  be  made  by  carefully  removing  some  of  the 
bark  of  a  tree  at  the  time  of  the  tree's  most  rapid  growth  in 
early  summer,  when  the  bark  most  readily  separates  from 
the  cambium  layer,  then  active  in  distributing  both  wood 
and  bark  materials,  which  are  then  soft  and  easily  placed. 
If  the  exposed  surface  of  the  cambium  is  carefully  shaded, 
or  the  weather  is  moist  and  cloudy  for  a  few  days,  a  coat 
of  bark  will  be  formed  over  the  entire  surface  that  has  been 
exposed,  —  providing  the  cambium  has  not  been  bruised 
or  broken,  —  and  the  wood  and  bark  growth  will  go  on 
under  the  new  bark  the  same  as  if  the  old  had  not  been  re- 
moved. A  young  and  thrifty  tree  can,  at  the  time  of  its 
most  rapid  growth,  be  completely  deprived  of  its  bark  for 


76  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

several  feet  in  height  and  recover,  if  the  cambium  is  care- 
fully protected  as  indicated.  In  shading  the  wound  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  enveloping  material  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  cambium,  for  wherever  it  touches 
the  bark  will  not  form. 

A  great  mistake  is  made  by  applying  to  the  wound  paint, 
oil,  dirt,  or  other  substance,  when  some  of  the  bark  of  a 
tree,  at  the  time  of  the  most  rapid  growth  in  early  sum- 
mer, has  been  removed  by  accident.  If  the  lacerated  spot 
is  shaded  by  wrapping  colored  paper  or  cloth  around  it, 
shutting  out  the  sunlight  and  wind,  the  wound  will  almost 
invariably  be  coated  with  new  bark,  and  little  practical  in- 
jury be  done  to  the  tree.  If  the  wound  is  made  late  in  the 
summer  there  will  be  no  bark  formed  and  then  the  wound 
would  best  be  painted  to  exclude  every  species  of  fungi. 

The  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  exterior  bark  of  trees 
give  a  fairly  good  guide  in  determining  the  species.  Thus 
no  Oak  need  be  mistaken  for  a  Pine,  nor  a  White  Pine  for 
a  Yellow  Pine ;  but  in  some  cases  there  is  so  close  a  re- 
semblance that  the  cursory  observer  may  be  mistaken.  At 
an  advanced  age  the  bark  of  a  Hemlock  somewhat  resem- 
bles that  of  a  White  Pine  of  the  same  size,  and  the  bark  of 
a  Red  Oak  and  a  Black  Oak  are  very  similar.  An  expert 
may  not  be  mistaken  in  an}'  case,  but  all  cannot  be  ex- 
perts, and  such  as  are  not  should  learn  to  know  the  trees 
the  same  as  they  do  a  person,  not  by  any  minor  detail  or 
particular  feature  alone,  but  by  their  general  make-up, 
their  forms,  general  features,  etc. 

While  we  have  a  comprehension  of  nearly  all  of  the  fea- 
tures of  tree-life  and  can  understand  how  certain  things 
are  brought  about,  there  is  one  which  has  much  to  do  with 
the  value  of  the  lumber  that  a  tree  may  produce  that  is 
wholly  inexplicable.  This  particular  characteristic  is  the 
irregularity  of  the  direction  of  the  grain  or  fibre  compos- 
ing the  substance  of  the  wood,  as  noted  on  page  80,  but 
there  considered  only  as  it  relates  to  commercial  or  indus- 
trial features.   There  are  two  kinds  of  irregular  grain  or 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  A  TREE  77 

fibre  quite  distinct  from  each  other.  As  noted,  one  is  where 
they  are  irreguhirly  interlaced  and  are  not  parallel  with 
each  other,  and  the  other  is  where  the  grain  is  practically 
parallel  with  itself,  but  winds  spirally  around  the  axis  of 
the  tree.  There  is  no  dictionary  word  for  the  former,  but 
woodworkers  say  it  is  "  eaty,"  meaning  that  the  fibres  work 
or  eat  their  way  into  the  wood  as  a  worm  eats  its  way  into 
fruit.  The  interlacing  of  the  fibres  is  invariably  found  in 
some  species,  as  in  the  S\'Camore  and  Tupelo.  In  others  it 
appears  occasionally.  It  adds  to  the  beauty  of  such  as  are 
used  for  interior  finish  and  furniture,  as  those  portions  of 
the  surface  which  show  the  ends  of  the  fibres  are,  when 
finished,  darker  in  color  than  those  showing  the  sides,  the 
color  varying  with  the  angle  in  which  the  fibres  are  pre- 
sented. This  irregularity  does  not  materially  lessen  the 
strength  of  the  wood,  and  for  some  purposes  cannot  be 
looked  upon  as  a  defect,  while  for  others  it  enhances  its 
value,  but  makes  it  difficult  to  work. 

The  other  irregularity  is  designated  as  "  winding,"  that 
is,  the  fibres  or  grain  ''  wind  "  around  the  stem  or  trunk ; 
and  when  the  lumber  is  cut  parallel  wuth  the  tree's  axis 
from  such  a  tree,  the  grain  necessarily  runs  across  the 
board  or  stick,  which  makes  it  not  only  hard  to  work  but 
weakens  it,  and  the  value  of  the  wood  for  some  purposes  is 
seriously  affected,  especially  if  the  wind  is  great.  A  board 
cut  from  such  a  tree  may  be  so  cross-grained  as  to  be  easily 
broken,  —  practically  be  split  diagonally  across,  —  and  a 
stick  used  for  vertical  support  is  weaker  because  of  the 
tendency  of  the  fibres  to  part  and  the  stick  to  collapse. 
Such  timber  is  rejected  by  the  competent  engineer  where 
great  compressile  strength  is  required.  The  tendency  of 
such  lumber  to  warp  in  seasoning  is  noted  elsewhere.  Nei- 
ther of  these  irregularities  is  uniform  in  any  species.  In- 
dividuals of  the  same  species  are  differently  affected.  Some 
trees  of  some  species  are  practically  free  —  but  few  en- 
tirely so  —  and  others  are  greatly  aft^ected.  No  one  claims 
that  there  is  any  hiw  manifest  in  the  ease  of  irregular  and 


78  IMPORTANT  TIMBER   TREES 

tortuous  interlacing  of  fibres,  but  it  is  erroneously  claimed 
by  some  that  there  is  a  uniform  law  shown  in  spiral  wind- 
ing, and  that  the  wind  is  always  in  the  direction  of  the 
sun's  course  in  the  heavens,  that  is,  from  east  to  west  on 
the  south  side  of  the  tree  and  consequently  in  the  opposite 
direction  on  the  other  side.  An  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  peeled  Hemlock  logs,  cut  in  localities  far  apart, 
during  twoscore  years  of  lumbering  experience,  —  this  tree 
being  more  given  to  that  kind  of  irregularity  than  almost 
any  other  of  our  timber  trees,  —  shows  that  about  ten  per 
cent  was  without  any  wind,  approximately  twenty  per  cent 
with  the  sun  and  seventy  per  cent  against  it.  No  law  ap- 
pears, in  the  case  of  trees,  to  govern  in  either  irregularity, 
although,  as  a  rule,  climbing  plants  twine  against  the  sun  ; 
nor  is  it  known  that  any  treatment  of  a  growing  tree  can 
in  any  way  modify  or  change  the  wind.  It  would  be  well 
for  the  Government  to  undertake  the  task  of  finding  out 
whether  winding  is  hereditary,  for  if  growing  trees  from 
seed  of  only  such  as  are  straight-grained  will  produce 
others  of  like  condition,  much  good  would  come  from  it. 


XII 

CLASSIFICATION  AND   CHARACTER  OF  WOOD 

That  it  may  be  understood  why  certain  peculiar  fea- 
tures and  characteristics  of  the  wood  of  each  of  the  several 
species  of  trees  described  in  succeeding  chapters  are  men- 
tioned in  detail,  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  define,  in  a  gen- 
eral manner,  the  meaning  of  the  terms  used,  and  also  to 
indicate  the  qualities  or  features  which  such  terms  cover 
or  represent;  for  upon  these  qualities  and  features  depend 
the  tree's  value.  It  must  be  plain  to  all  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  particular  features  of  the  wood  of  each  species  of 
trees,  and  its  adaptation  to  the  uses  to  which  the  wood  is 
or  can  be  put,  is  essential  in  determining  what  kinds  to 
grow ;  and  such  knowledge  must  be  had  before  an  intelli- 
gent course  can  be  decided  upon. 

Softwood.  —  Hardwood.  Generally  speaking,  the  tim- 
ber trees  of  our  country  are  classed  as  "  Softwood  "  and 
"  Hardwood,"  and  however  much  or  little  this  division  may 
vary  from  fact  the  distinction  is  universally  made  in  the 
lumber  trade.  Yet,  when  we  consider  the  trees  placed  in 
each  class  by  the  lumberman,  we  can  see  that  the  terms 
are  not  in  accordance  with  fact.  Some  are  classed  as  hard- 
woods when  the  wood  is  actually  softer  than  that  of  some 
which  are  classed  as  softwoods.  To  speak  of  the  softwoods 
of  the  lumberman  as  "  conifers  "  would  be  correct  in  fact, 
for  that  they  all  are.  It  would  not  be  correct  to  speak  of 
the  lumberman's  softwoods  as  "  evergreens,"  for  Cypress, 
Larches,  and  Tamaracks  are  all  classed  among  softwoods 
and  are  all  conifers,  and  they  are  deciduous,  —  they  shed 
their  leaves  in  autumn,  —  while  the  Holly  and  Live  Oak 
are  evergreens,  but  are  strictly  hardwoods,  and  are  so 
classed. 


80  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Fortunately,  however,  what  constitutes  a  softwood  tree 
has  been  defined  by  a  recent  decision  of  the  courts  which 
holds  that  "  any  tree  that  has  a  needle-like  leaf  is  a  soft- 
wood "  ;  and  under  this  distinction  it  will  be  fair  to  assume 
that  all  others  are  hardwoods.  It  is  not  claimed  that  this 
decision  is  based  upon  actual  character  of  the  wood,  but 
upon  a  prevailing  classification,  by  lumbermen,  which  is  of 
so  long  standing  that  it  amounts  to  a  universal  custom  of 
which  the  law  will  take  cognizance.  It  should  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  when  the  author  speaks  of  the  wood 
of  any  given  tree  as  "  soft "  or  "  hard,"  he  refers  to  the 
actual  properties  and  not  to  the  classification  designated  by 
the  judicial  decision  ;  as,  for  instance,  he  calls  the  wood  of 
Sugar  Maple  hard  and  that  of  Basswood  soft,  while  both 
belong  to  the  class  of  legal  hardwoods.  So,  too,  the  wood 
of  the  Longleaf  Pine  is  spoken  of  as  hard,  —  that  is,  hard 
for  a  pine,  —  while  it  is  legally  placed  with  the  softwoods, 
and  this  rule  pertains  to  all  species  of  trees  considered. 

Fine-grained  —  Close-grained  —  Coarse-grained  — 
Cross-grained  —  Straight-grained.  All  these  terms  are 
more  or  less  used  by  lumbermen,  woodworkers,  and  authors 
denoting  certain  characteristics  of  wood.  In  order  to  under- 
stand their  meaning,  it  will  be  well  first  to  determine  what 
constitutes  the  "  grain."  Unfortunately  the  dictionaries  are 
not  very  explicit  in  definition  nor  are  they  in  complete  ac- 
cord with  woodworkers  and  lumbermen  respecting  its  mean- 
ing when  applied  to  wood.  The  nearest  approach  to  an 
agreement  is  the  definition  of  "grain"  given  in  the  Century 
Dictionary^  where  it  is  defined  as  "  fibrous  texture  or  con- 
stitution, especially  of  wood ;  the  substance  of  wood  as  modi- 
fied by  the  quality,  arrangement,  or  direction  of  its  fibres : 
as,  boxwood  has  a  very  compact  grain  ;  wood  of  a  gnarled 
grain ;  to  plane  wood  with,  against,  or  across  the  grain."  The 
same  authority  defines  fibre  as  "the  narrow  elongated  cells 
which  characterize  the  woody  and  bast  tissues  of  plants, 
giving  them  strength,  toughness,  and  elasticity."  While 
giving  due  importance  to  the  direction  and  arrangement 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  CHARACTER  OF  WOOD     81 

of  the  fibres  the  woodworker  and  himberman  take  into  con- 
sideration the  size  and  number  of  cells  or  veins  and  their 
arrangement,  and  to  some  extent  the  difference  in  density 
and  compactness  between  spring  and  summer  growth. 

Fine-grained  —  Close-grained.  These  are  practically 
synonymous  terms  and  are  applied  by  the  lumberman  and 
woodworker  to  wood  with  small,  inconspicuous,  and  evenly 
distributed  pores  or  veins.  In  some  woods  these  are  so 
small  as  to  be  barely  visible,  if  at  all,  to  the  unaided  eye, 
and  the  fibres  are  compact  and  close.  Such  wood  is  not 
necessarily  hard.  Cedar  is  fine-grained  but  soft ;  boxwood 
is  fine-grained  but  hard.  Schlich,  in  his  JMcuiual  (volume  v, 
page  83),  defines  fine-grained  wood  as  "  wood  that  can  be 
easily  worked,  whether  or  not  it  appears  so  to  the  eye.  It 
is  not  equivalent  to  narrow-zoned  —  annual  rings  —  nor  to 
anatomical  simple  structures."  This  takes  into  considera- 
tion the  fineness  and  even  distribution  of  fibres  and  veins. 
Such  wood  may  be  hard  yet  easily  worked  because  of  its 
uniform  density. 

Coarse-grained.  With  the  woodworker  this  term  is 
practically  the  opposite  of  fine-grained.  It  applies  where 
the  ducts  or  veins  are  numerous,  coarse,  and  unevenly  dis- 
tributed. In  some  woods  the  spring  growth  shows  numer- 
ous large  veins,  while  the  summer  wood  has  only  small  and 
inconspicuous  ones  —  notably  the  Oaks,  Ashes,  Chestnut, 
Elms,  and  some  others.  Such  woods  may  be  either  hard  or 
soft,  but  they  may  be,  and  generally  are,  hard  to  work  be- 
cause of  their  unevenness  in  density. 

Cross-grained.  Strictly  speaking,  this  term  applies  to 
wood  where  the  fibres  are  not  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
tree  from  which  it  is  cut,  as  explained  on  page  77.  It  is 
also  given  to  wood  where  the  fibres  are  not  parallel  to  each 
other  but  are  tortuous  and  interlaced. 

Straight-grained.  This  applies  to  wood  where  the  fibres 
are  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  stem  of  the  tree.  Such  wood 
is  stronger  than  if  cross-grained  and  is  hence  more  valu- 
able. As  a  rule  it  can   be  easily  split  and  more  readily 


82  IMPORTANT   TIMBER   TREES 

dressed  to  a  fine,  smooth  surface,  although  not  esteemed  as 
beautiful  when  finished  without  paint. 

Strength  of  Fibre.  Irrespective  of  the  direction  or  den- 
sity of  the  grain  or  fibre  of  wood  there  is  a  peculiar  fea- 
ture in  some  wood  which  adds  much  to  the  value  of  trees 
possessing  it.  This  is  termed  its  Strength  of  Fibre,  and  is 
that  characteristic  or  quality  which  fits  the  wood  for  the 
manufacture  of  what  is  commercially  termed  "  pulp,"  from 
which  paper,  celluloid,  cardboard,  and  many  other  useful 
articles  are  made.  Some  species  of  trees  are  conspicuously 
adapted  for  this  and  others  are  not.  The  poplars  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  list  for  pulp  for  paper,  and  next  after  them 
come  the  Spruces,  Firs,  Balsams,  Hemlocks,  Pines,  and  some 
of  the  broadleaf  trees,  as  Basswood,  Yellow  Poplar,  and 
some  others. 

Seasoning  —  Drying  —  Checking  —  Warping.  These 
features  are  so  intimately  connected  with  each  other  that 
they  need  not  be  separately  discussed.  The  first  two  terms 
are  practically  synonymous  and  will  be  so  used.  Webster's 
definition  of  seasoning  is,  "  To  prepare  by  drying  or  harden- 
ing, or  removal  of  natural  juices ;  as,  to  season  timber."  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  when  wood  is  cut  from  a  live  tree  it 
is  heavier  than  when  seasoned  —  that  is,  heavier  than  when 
the  moisture  in  the  pores  or  veins  has  been  dried  out.  The 
results  which  arise  from  seasoning  have  much  to  do  with  the 
value  of  the  wood  and  hence  become  an  important  economic 
feature.  Unless  used  where  continually  saturated  with  water, 
all  wood  is  more  serviceable  if  seasoned,  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  that  can  be  accomplished,  and  the  freedom  from 
injury  in  bringing  that  about,  play  an  important  part  when 
we  determine  what  trees  to  plant. 

As  has  been  explained  (page  66),  the  pores  or  veins 
carry  the  sap  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  and  hence  have 
more  or  less  moisture  in  them  all  of  the  time.  Before  sea- 
soning there  is  always  more  moisture  in  the  sapwood  than 
in  the  heartwood,  and  therefore  wood  from  trees  with  a  large 
amount  of  the  former  is  more  difficult  to  season  than  the 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  CHARACTER   OF  WOOD     83 

latter,  and  consequently  the  wood  shrinks  more  in  drying. 
The  pores  in  the  heartwood  are  more  or  less  filled  with  gum, 
tannin,  and  other  substances,  yet  are  never  without  moist- 
ure until  thoroughly  seasoned.  When  the  moisture  is  evap- 
orated the  wood  necessarily  shrinks,  the  fibres  become  more 
compact,  it  becomes  stronger,  —  not  necessaril}'  tougher, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  more  brittle,  —  harder,  and  more 
serviceable.  Evaporation  of  the  moisture  proceeds  most 
rapidly  from  the  ends  of  the  pores  or  veins  when  exposed 
—  although  in  but  few  woods  are  they  continuous ;  hence  a 
board  or  stick  will  dry  more  quickly  at  the  ends,  and, 
shrinking  faster  there  than  elsewhere,  cracks  are  liable  to 
occur.  Consequently,  to  prevent  unequal  shrinking,  and 
the  resultant  checking,  evaporation  should  go  on  evenly 
over  the  entire  surface.  To  avoid  checking  through  the  un- 
equal evaporation  of  the  moisture  they  contain,  logs  of 
valuable  species,  such  as  Black  Walnut,  Ash,  Cherry,  etc., 
are  frequently  painted  at  the  ends  as  soon  as  cut. 

The  moisture  in  the  fibres  and  pores  of  the  wood  is  not 
compelled  to  pass  out  through  the  ends  of  the  wood  alone, 
as  it  can  and  does  escape  elsewhere.  Unfortunately  the 
escape  of  moisture  is  not  uniform  in  any  species  of  wood, 
but  may  be  greater  in  some  parts  than  in  others ;  and  this 
gives  rise  to  irregular  shrinking,  which  results  in  warping 
and  twisting  of  the  stick  or  board,  —  which  is  a  very  serious 
defect  even  if  checking  is  avoided.  It  is  greater  in  some 
species  of  wood  than  in  others.  This  irregular  drying,  and 
consequent  irregular  shrinking  and  checking,  are  largely 
brought  about  —  but  not  entirely  so  —  by  the  fibres  not 
running  parallel  with  each  other.  As  has  been  shown,  the 
fibres  of  some  species  of  tree  are  much  distorted  and  run  in 
various  directions,  twisting  and  Interlacing,  and  when  lumber 
is  sawed  from  them  the  open  ends  of  the  pores  are  presented 
and  evaporation  takes  place  more  rapidly  there.  Shrinkage 
endwise  will  occur  In  cross-grained  wood  practically  in  the 
ratio  of  the  departure  of  the  fibres  from  parallelism  with 
the  axis  of  the  stick  or  board. 


84  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Checking  and  warping  of  some  woods  when  seasoning 
baffled  manufacturers  for  a  long  time,  and,  until  methods 
were  discovered  whereby  it  was  overcome,  many  woods  were 
esteemed  of  little  value.  But  much  has  been  gained  in  that 
direction,  and  dry-kilns  now  obviate  such  difficulties  to  a 
great  extent.  They  suppress  even  the  exudation  of  gums 
and  pitch  from  some  woods  so  that  they  can  be  painted  or 
otherwise  finished  without  danger  of  disfigurement  from 
that  source.  Experience  shows  that  all  wood  can  imbibe 
moisture  after  being  seasoned,  —  some  more  than  others, 
—  whether  it  comes  as  a  direct  application  of  water  or  from 
a  humid  atmosphere.  Whenever  that  occurs  the  wood  im- 
mediately swells  and,  in  common  parlance,  "  will  not  stay 
put." 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  but  one  well  known  to  woodworkers, 
that  no  matter  how  long  or  how  thoroughly  a  piece  of  wood 
may  have  been  seasoned,  and  notwithstanding  it  may  practi- 
cally have  neither  shrunk  nor  swelled  during  its  use,  yet  to 
dress  off  the  surface  with  a  plane  or  otherwise  will  cause 
the  piece  to  shrink  again.  Whether  there  is  still  moisture 
in  the  wood  which  can  escape  after  the  thoroughly  dried 
surface  is  removed  may  be  a  question,  but  probably  that  is 
the  case. 

Decay.  It  is  well  known  that  some  woods  decay  more 
rapidly  than  others.  As  here  used,  decay  does  not  include 
wearing  away  of  a  surface  when  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  winds,  water,  or  frost,  but  a  breaking-down  of  the  cellu- 
lar structure  from  and  through  diseases  brought  into  it  by 
some  of  the  various  species  of  fungi.  Wood  of  some  spe- 
cies of  trees  resists  these  attacks  better  than  others,  and 
this  power  of  resistance  in  a  large  measure  establishes  its 
value  for  exposed  situations.  Were  a  fence  post,  telegraph 
pole,  or  railroad  tie  cut  from  a  Paper  Birch  capable  of  re- 
sisting decay  equal  to  that  of  a  Locust  or  Catalpa,  the  value 
of  the  Birch  would  be  far  above  what  it  is.  Thus  a  know- 
ledge of  the  resistance  to  decay  aids  in  determining  what  to 
plant. 


CLASSIFICATION   AND   CHARACTER  OF  WOOD     85 

Strength.  The  power  to  resist  breaking  or  crushing  is 
another  very  desirable  feature  in  wood.  For  many  purposes 
this  determines  its  value.  White  Oak  and  Hickory  are  well 
known  for  their  strength  and  endurance  when  subjected  to 
great  strain  and  heavy  burdens.  Weight  for  weight  they 
are  nearly  as  strong  as  cast  iron  in  resisting  transverse 
strains.  This  eminently  fits  them  for  some  purposes,  for 
which  other  species  would  be  worthless.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  the  wood  of  a  tree  of  any  given  species  is  not 
of  equal  strength.  Some  Oaks  may  have  no  greater  strength, 
for  equal  dimensions,  than  White  Pine  or  Yellow  Poplar ; 
but  this  arises  from  conditions  surrounding  the  tree  in  its 
growth.  The  wood  of  some  parts  of  a  tree  may  be  stronger 
than  that  of  other  portions.  Soil,  location,  age,  suppression 
by  other  trees,  and  subsequent  relief  from  that,  may  greatly 
modify  the  character  of  the  wood  produced.  Therefore,  the 
best  that  can  be  done  in  describing  the  qualities  of  any 
wood  is  to  speak  of  it  in  its  average  condition,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  say  of  an  Oak  or  a  Hickory  that  it  is  tough, 
strong,  hard,  etc.,  or  of  some  other  species  that  they  are 
weak,  soft,  and  brittle. 

Color  —  Texture.  The  color,  texture,  and  general  appear- 
ance of  wood  when  used  for  furniture,  interior  finish,  or  in 
other  protected  places  where  it  is  to  be  seen,  are  important 
features  and  have  much  to  do  with  its  value.  Though  some- 
what harder  and  more  durable  than  Yellow  Poplar,  Black 
AV'alnut  would  be  of  little  more  value  than  the  Poplar  were 
the  beauty  of  its  color  and  texture  covered  with  a  coat 
of  paint.  Some  woods  have  a  rich,  satiny,  and  transparent 
surface  when  finished  without  stain  or  paint,  and  modern 
taste  has  come  to  appreciate  these  qualities.  Some  will  take 
stain  well,  by  which  they  may  be  made  to  resemble  closely 
woods  of  superior  character,  and  some  will  take  paint  or 
glue  better  than  others,  all  of  which  are  important  features. 

Medullary  Rays.  The  wood  of  all  trees  has  medullary 
rays  as  elsewhere  described.  In  many  species  they  are  small 
and  inconspicuous,  but  the  possession  of   them  by  a  few 


86  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

adds  mucli  to  their  importance,  notably  all  the  Oaks,  the 
Sycamore,  and  several  others  in  a  lesser  degree.  Woods  in 
which  these  are  prominent  and  conspicuous  are  generally 
"  quarter  sawed  "  in  manufacture,  that  is,  sawed  radially  — 
from  centre  to  circumference  —  so  as  to  display  this  feature. 
When  sawed  tangentially  —  at  right  angles  with  a  line 
drawn  from  centre  to  periphery  —  it  is  called  "flat," 
"  plain,"  or  "  bastard  "  sawed.  The  latter  method  displays 
the  prominent  features  arising  from  the  difference  in  color 
and  density  between  spring  and  summer  growth.  This  dis- 
tinction is  further  emphasized  in  finishing  with  colored 
"  filling,"  which  darkens  the  pc 
makes  them  more  conspicuous. 

All  of  the  features  here  noted,  and  some  of  less  import- 
ance, add  to  or  detract  from,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  value 
of  woods,  and  should  be  considered  when  determining  what 
to  plant.  Although  some  of  the  nut-bearing  trees  have  ad- 
ditional value  on  account  of  the  fruit  they  bear,  and  others 
in  the  resin,  gum,  or  tannin  in  the  bark  or  wood,  or  other 
like  properties,  such  features  do  not  have  any  very  import- 
ant bearing  in  deciding  what  trees  to  grow  for  timber,  but 
they  may  aid  somewhat  in  determining  what  to  choose.  The 
fact,  however,  should  be  recognized  that  trees  grown  in  the 
forest  where  they  must  be  crowded  to  produce  good  timber 
bear  little  fruit  at  best,  and  that  not  until  late  in  life. 


XIII 

THE  FOREST  NURSERY 

Planting  or  sowing  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  grow 
to  maturity  is  frequently  advisable,  and  in  some  instances 
and  with  some  species,  may  prove  to  be  the  most  satisfac- 
tory method,  but  experience  shows  that  growing  certain 
kinds  in  a  nursery  and,  when  large  enough,  transplanting 
them  into  the  forest  is  far  more  likely  to  be  successful.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  in  the  nursery  the  young  trees  are 
protected  and  cared  for  until  they  are  large  enough  to  con- 
tend successfully  with  the  adverse  surroundings  which  they 
are  almost  certain  to  encounter  in  early  life  from  the  pres- 
ence of  brush,  weeds,  and  grass  that  almost  invariably  exist 
on  the  ground  where  the  forest  is  to  stand.  Only  on  limited 
areas  can  tree  seeds  be  planted  where  the  forest  is  to  grow 
without  the  tiny  and  almost  helpless  seedlings  encountering 
unfavorable  conditions  which  will  render  them  liable  to  be 
greatly  retarded  in  growth  or  killed  outright.  We  know 
full  well  that  our  farm  and  garden  crops  must  be  protected 
from  weeds  in  early  life,  —  and  should  be  at  all  ages  to 
be  profitable,  —  and  it  is  precisely  the  same  with  young 
trees. 

It  may  appear  paradoxical  but  it  is  an  established  fact 
that  many  species  of  trees  can  be  grown  from  seed  in  a 
nursery  and  properly  treated  there  until  three  or  four  years 
old,  —  their  sojourn  in  the  nursery  to  depend  largely  upon 
the  species, — and  can  then  be  set  out  in  the  forest,  where  they 
will,  at  the  end  of  six  or  eight  years,  be  larger,  more  vigor- 
ous, and  better  able  to  withstand  encroachments  upon  their 
domain,  whereby  they  are  robbed  of  moisture,  food,  and 
light  by  worthless  and  greedy  vegetable  growth,  than  will 
be  those  of  the  same  age  from  seed  sown  or  planted  in  pre- 


88  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

cisely  like  situations.  But  this  is  not  true  with  all  species. 
Some  have  what  is  designated  a  tap-root,  —  among  these 
are  a  few  of  the  conifers  and  many  of  the  broadleaf  species, 
■ — and  the  deprivation  or  severe  mutilation  of  that  feature 
is  sometimes  fatal,  and  in  all  cases  retards  the  growth.  Such 
would  best  be  planted  where  they  are  to  grow  to  maturity, 
although  some  of  them  can  be  transplanted  without  serious 
injury.  In  addition  to  being  relieved  from  adverse  sur- 
roundings a  young  tree  grown  in  a  nursery  develops  a  fuller 
and  better  root  system  than  when  standing  among  worth- 
less hungry  neighbors.  This  is  especially  true  if  it  can  be 
once  transplanted  in  the  nursery  and  given  more  space  in 
which  it  can  grow  for  one,  two,  or  three  years.  To  grow 
trees  in  a  nursery  until  they  are  large  enough  to  be  trans- 
planted into  the  forest  is  no  more  difficult  than  it  is  to  grow 
most  garden  vegetables.  The  length  of  time  required  is  the 
most  important  difference. 

As  the  nursery  is  the  basis  upon  which  any  considerable 
advancement  and  success  in  forestry  in  the  future  of  this 
country  must  rest,  —  and  the  experience  of  European  coun- 
tries shows  that  it  is  so  there,  —  a  full  description  of  the 
methods  which  experienced  nurserymen  have  found  most 
advisable,  together  with  suggestions  for  removal  of  the  lit- 
tle trees  from  the  nursery  and  planting  them  into  the  for- 
est, is  surely  justified,  although  it  may  require  considerable 
space.  The  professional  nurseryman  may  not  find  much 
in  this  relation  that  is  new,  but  what  he  will  see  is  based 
upon  actual  experience  as  exhibited  in  the  largest  and  best 
forest  nurseries  ;  and  to  it  is  added  the  careful  and  diligent 
personal  observation  and  experience  of  the  author.  Rea- 
sons for  doing  this  or  that  thing  are  given  and  the  reader 
can  judge  for  himself  whether  they  are  sound.  While  large 
areas  are  dealt  with,  an  intelligent  understanding  will  ob- 
serve that  small  ones  are  to  be  treated  in  substantially  the 
same  manner. 

In  explanation  of  the  t«rms  used  it  should  be  stated  that 
a  "  seed-bed  "  is  that  part  of  a  nursery  where  the  seeds  are 


NATrRALLY   GROWN    WHITE   PINE   SEEOLIXCS,   TAKEN   FROM 
ABANDONED   FIELD 

The  one  at  extreme  left  is  one  year  old;  the  others  are  two,  four,  and  five  years 
respectively     Note  the  lack  of  fibrous  root  development,  especially  next  to  stem. 


NURSERY-GROWN    WHITE   PINE   SEEDLINGS   AND    TRANSPLANTS 

From  right  to  left:  one-year-old  seedling;  two-year-old  seedling;  three-year-old 
transplant,  removed  from  seed-bed  at  two  years;  four-year-old  transplant,  removed 
from  seed-bed  at  two  years,  seven  inches  high  from  top  of  root  system  to  terminal 
bud.    Note  good  root  development,  especially  in  the  transplants. 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  89 

sown  ;  that  tlie  little  trees  grown  in  the  seed-beds  are  termed 
"  seedlings  "  until  removed,  which  event  may  occur  when 
they  are  one,  two,  three,  or  four  years  old.  The  "transplant 
nursery  "  is  the  ground  to  which  the  seedlings  are  removed 
in  order  to  develop  their  root  system  and  make  them  able 
to  achieve  victory  in  their  struggle  when  set  out  in  the 
forest.  After  removal  from  the  seed-bed  to  the  transplant 
nursery  the  little  trees  are  known  as  "  transplants."  Seed- 
lings and  transplants  are,  for  brevity,  designated  "  plants." 

Location.  The  main  requisite  is  a  deep,  fertile,  and 
friable  soil,  with  good  drainage  and  free  from  stones.  In 
these  requirements  they  are  in  complete  accord  with  the 
vegetable  garden.  The  ground  selected  should  not  be  ex- 
posed to  the  sweep  of  wdnds,  whereby  the  moisture  will  be 
quickly  evaporated,  nor  where  the  snow  will  be  blown  off. 
Pi'otection  from  evaporation  —  evaporation  is  always  in- 
creased by  winds  —  and  preserving  the  snow  covering  that 
Nature  generally  puts  on  the  ground  in  winter  are  highly 
essential.  The  latter  is  moi-e  important  than  may  at  first 
appear.  It  is  fully  realized  by  farmers  that  a  covering  of 
snow  on  winter  wheat  or  newly  seeded  meadow  is  a  great 
protection  against  the  roots  being  thrown  out  by  the  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing  which  occurs  when  the  ground  is 
bare  in  winter,  and  the  same  liability  to  be  thrown  out  under 
similar  conditions  exists  with  little  trees  in  the  nursery. 
When  Nature  plants  tree  seeds  she  protects  the  infant 
plants  in  winter  by  the  shade  of  larger  trees  or  with  a  cov- 
ering of  dead  weeds,  grass,  or  fallen  leaves, 

A  slight  inclination  of  the  surface  is  very  desirable,  for  if 
it  is  perfectly  level,  and  there  should  more  water  fall  at  any 
time  than  can  be  readily  absorbed  by  the  ground,  the  plants 
may  be  greatly  injured  or  killed  outright  by  being  sub- 
merged. A  slight  descent  facilitates  underdraining,  which 
will  be  necessary  if  not  naturally  provided  for  by  a  loose  sub- 
soil free  from  water.  If  the  subsoil  is  a  compact  clay,  and 
practically  impervious  to  water,  underdraining  should  be  re- 
sorted to,  but  such  a  location  should  be  avoided  if  possible. 


90  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Preparation  of  the  Ground.  The  selection  of  the  site 
having  been  determined  upon,  the  preparation  of  the  ground 
naturally  follows.  If  the  plot  chosen  is  fairly  fertile  it  would 
best  be  ploughed  or  spaded  late  in  the  fall  to  a  depth  of  ten 
or  twelve  inches  —  preferably  the  latter.  This  work  should 
be  delayed  to  as  late  a  period  as  possible  so  as  to  expose  to 
the  frosts  of  winter  all  larvae  or  other  pests  that  burrow  in 
the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  not  fertile  a  suitable  coat  of  muck,i 
compost,  or  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  should  be  applied 
and  ploughed  or  spaded  under.  The  latter  must  be  well 
covered,  for  if  not  put  below  the  surface  a  crop  of  weeds 
will  very  likely  spring  up  the  next  summer  and  cause  much 
trouble  and  expense  in  getting  rid  of  them.  If  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  spading  or  ploughing  will  per- 
mit it  the  plot  should  at  once  be  laid  out  into  beds  four  and 
one  half  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  may  be  deemed  advisable. 
Most  of  the  beds  must  be  covered  with  lath  screens  the  first 
year,  and  a  screen  six  feet  long  is  one  of  convenient  length 
for  handling,  and  any  multiple  of  that  may  be  adopted  for 
the  length  of  the  bed.  If  the  ground  is  much  descending 
the  beds  should  be  laid  out  closely  approaching  contour 
lines  ;  that  is,  they  should  be  nearly  level,  but  still  descend- 
ing lengthwise  enough  to  prevent  water  standing  in  the 
paths  between  them.  The  paths  between  the  beds  may  be 
from  one  and  one  half  to  two  or  more  feet  wide  —  two  feet 
being  generally  deemed  ample.  The  depths  of  the  paths 
must  be  regulated  by  the  character  of  the  soil.  If  loose  or 
sandy  they  need  not  be  over  three  inches  deep,  or  four  at 
farthest,  but  if  the  soil  is  close  and  compact  they  should  be 
deeper.  The  soil  from  the  paths  can  be  thrown  on  the  beds, 
and  the  entire  surface  should  be  made  as  rough  as  possible 
and  left  in  that  condition  so  that  freezing  can  pulverize  it, 
for  that  is  essential. 

^  Muck  obtained  from  a  swamp  or  any  wet  location  should  have  its  natu- 
ral acidity  corrected  with  lime  before  its  use  is  attempted.  After  thoroughly 
mingling  the  lime  and  muck  the  mass  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
open  air  for  several  months  and  be  occasionally  worked  over.  It  can  then  be 
composted  with  barnyard  manure  and  used  to  good  advantage  in  the  nursery. j 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  91 

As  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  dry  enough  in  the  spring 
the  beds  should  be  spaded  or  otherwise  worked  to  a  depth 
of  a  few  inches,  but  not  deep  enough  to  bring  to  the  sur- 
face any  manure  filled  with  weed  seeds  that  may  have  been 
applied  in  the  fall.  All  stones  and  sticks  must  be  removed 
and  any  lumps  of  manure,  sods,  or  compact  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  pulverized  or  raked  off.  A  small-tined  potato 
hook  or  a  long-toothed  garden  rake  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  surface  of  the  bed  must  be  finely  pulverized 
and  smoothed  and  the  centre  made  an  inch,  or  a  trifle  more, 
higher  than  the  edges — just  enough  to  carry  off  the  sur- 
plus water  that  may  fall  in  time  of  excessive  rains. 

For  proof  of  the  advisability  of  ploughing  or  spading  in 
the  late  fall  and  not  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  stated  that 
many  farmers  follow  fall  ploughing  for  sowing  oats,  bar- 
ley, and  spring  wheat,  and  with  good  results,  only  harrow- 
ing or  lightly  cultivating  the  surface  before  sowing.  Of 
course  this  system  applies  only  to  those  portions  of  the 
country  where  the  frost  goes  down  from  six  to  ten  or  more 
inches  in  depth.  The  object  is  to  take  advantage  of  the 
friable  condition  of  the  soil  which  is  brought  about  by 
freezing,  and  the  additional  advantage  of  early  sowing. 
This  latter  is  of  more  importance  than  it  at  first  may  ap- 
pear. In  early  spring  the  soil  is  invariably  moist  at  the 
bottom,  —  and  yet  it  may  be  dry  enough  on  the  very  sur- 
face to  sow  seeds  in,  —  and  if  not  ploughed  or  spaded  will 
retain  that  moisture  for  some  time,  thus  aiding  in  early 
germination.  Instances  can  be  given  where  early  sowing 
of  tree  seeds  was  eminently  successful,  while  those  sown  ten 
days  later  in  an  adjacent  bed  resulted  in  almost  complete 
failure.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  fall  planting  of  the 
seeds  of  many  of  our  timber  trees  would  be  best  were  the 
seeds  not  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  birds,  mice,  or  squirrels. 
It  is  the  natural  method.  Nature  sows  nearly  all  the  seeds 
which  she  brings  forth  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe.  Spring 
ploughing  or  spading  must  be  resorted  to  if  that  work  has 
not  been  done  late  in  the  fall  or  frost  has  not  pulverized 


92  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

the  ground;  but  unless  the  ground  lies  undisturbed  until 
it  is  well  dried  out  to  the  depth  that  it  is  to  be  cultivated, 
wet  lumps  will  be  brought  up  and  these  will  not  pulverize 
readily,  and  when  they  dry  out  they  will  bake  and  leave 
the  ground  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition  for  seed-sow- 
ing. To  wait  until  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  spade  or 
plough  will,  unless  it  is  sandy,  ordinarily  so  delay  plauting 
that  success  will  be  doubtful. 

If  the  ground  selected  is  full  of  weed  seeds  it  will  gen- 
erally be  found  profitable,  in  the  end,  to  delay  planting  for 
a  year  in  order  to  get  rid,  as  much  as  possible,  of  the 
weeds  that  will  spring  up  from  them  if  not  destroyed,  for 
keeping  down  the  weeds  is  among  the  most  expensive  items 
in  nursery  work.  With  such  a  condition  of  the  soil  the  ground 
ought  to  be  ploughed  early  in  the  spring  and  as  soon  as 
the  weeds  show  should  be  gone  over  with  a  harrow,  culti- 
vator, or  heavy  rake,  this  operation  to  be  repeated  as  often 
as  the  weeds  show  green  on  the  surface*  This  frequent 
cultivation  will  bring  a  large  number  of  the  weed  seeds 
where  they  will  germinate,  and  frequent  cultivation  will 
kill  them.  If  the  ground  could  be  ploughed  once  or  twice 
in  the  summer  all  the  better.  Weeds  can  be  destroyed 
much  cheaper  in  this  way  than  by  pulling  them  out  by 
hand  from  among  the  little  plants.  If  sod  ground  be 
chosen  it,  too,  should  be  ploughed  in  early  spring,  fre- 
quently harrowed  in  summer,  and  about  the  first  of  Sep- 
tember cross-ploughed  and,  late  in  the  fall,  spaded  and 
made  into  beds.  If  not  fertile  a  coat  of  manure  should  be 
applied  before  spring  ploughing.  It  may  seem  a  waste  of 
time  and  a  loss  of  the  use  of  the  ground  to  let  it  appar- 
ently lie  idle  for  a  year,  but  it  will  pay  in  the  end. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  When  the  seed-beds  are  prepared 
the  forest  nurseryman  must  decide  which  one  of  two  sys- 
tems he  will  adopt  in  sowing  the  seeds.  In  making  the  se- 
lection he  must  be  governed  by  the  condition  of  the  soil  in 
which  the  seeds  are  to  be  placed  and  the  species  of  trees  to 
be  grown.  These  systems  are  known  as  Broadcast  Sowing 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  93 

and  Drill  Sowing  (sowing  in  rows).  Nearly  all  the  con- 
iferous and  some  of  the  broadleaf  seeds  can  be  sown  broad- 
cast, and  all  species  can  be  sown  in  drills.  The  moist 
weed  seeds  lying  in  the  ground  will  invariably  germinate 
sooner  than  the  dry  tree  seeds,  and  the  weeds,  being  much 
more  rapid  growers  than  the  trees,  will,  if  present  in  large 
numbers,  suppress  the  seedling  trees  unless  the  weeds  are 
promptly  removed  on  their  appearance.  Neither  weeding 
with  any  implement  nor  cultivation  of  the  surface  can  be 
engaged  in  if  broadcast  sowing  is  adopted,  but  drill  sowing 
will  permit  this  to  be  done  between  the  rows  with  small 
hoes  or  hand  weeders.  It  also  permits  cultivation,  which 
at  times  is  very  important. 

Broadcast  Sowing.  The  reasons  which  govern  in 
adopting  broadcast  sowing  are :  Greater  yield  on  the  same 
area,  doing  away  with  the  labor  of  weeding  and  cultivation, 
and  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  seedlings.  The  first  two 
reasons  named  need  not  be  questioned  if  the  ground  is  free 
from  weed  seeds,  and  the  last  one  appears  to  be  based  on 
fact,  but  it  is  difficult  to  show  why  it  is  so.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  more  complete  shading  of  the  gi-ound 
afforded  by  the  crowns  of  the  seedlings,  when  standing 
close  together,  prevents  evaporation  and  provides  a  condi- 
tion somewhat  like  that  of  the  forest  floor  under  older  trees. 
Aside  from  the  claim  that  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  seed- 
lings results  from  broadcast  sowing,  the  fact  that  a  greater 
yield  from  a  given  area  can  be  secured  by  this  sj^stem 
should  receive  favorable  consideration  ;  and  especially  so  if 
the  ground  is  not  seriously  filled  with  weed  seeds.  If  it  is 
so  filled  the  cost  for  labor  in  removing  the  weeds,  and  the 
consequent  injury  to  the  little  seedlings  by  such  removal 
—  for  they  will  doubtless  stand  so  close  that  pulling  up 
the  weeds  will  destroy  more  or  less  of  the  seedlings  —  will 
more  than  counterbalance  the  increased  yield  and  any  real 
or  fancied  vigor  of  growth.  If  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow 
in  a  dense  stand  of  seedlings  they  will  not  only  rob  the 
soil  of  its  food  and  moisture,  but  overtop  and  suppress  the 


94  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

diminutive  seedlings.  Whether  or  not  broadcast  sowing  in 
the  seed-beds  should  be  adopted  must  mainly  depend  upou 
the  amount  of  weed  seeds  in  the  soil.^ 

When  the  seed-bed  has  been  properly  prepared  the  seed 
should,  in  some  manner,  be  evenly  scattered  over  it  with- 
out delay.  This  is  a  somewhat  difficult  task  and  it  must  be 
done  by  hand,  for  no  machine  has  yet  been  brought  out 
that  will  broadcast  seed  evenly  on  so  narrow  a  strip  of 
ground  without  scattering  more  or  less  of  it  where  it  will 
be  wasted.  The  seed  would  best  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 
several  times  its  bulk  of  light-colored  sand  and  then  scat- 
tered as  evenly  as  possible.  Enough  sand  should  be  added 
to  go  over  the  bed  at  least  twice.  The  color  of  the  sand 
will  indicate  where  the  seed  has  fallen.  Small  seeds  can, 
when  mixed  with  sand,  be  quite  evenly  sown  with  a  sieve 
with  suitable  meshes. 

As  soon  as  sown  the  seeds  should  be  pressed  into  the 
ground  with  a  bat,  hoe,  or  shovel,  or  a  board  can  be  laid 
on  and  a  light  blow  given  it.  After  the  seeds  have  been 
pressed  into  the  ground  a  coat  of  finely  pulverized  loose 
soil  or,  better,  a  mixture  of  well  decayed  leaf  mould  and 
sand,  must  be  evenly  sifted  over  the  entire  surface  to  a 
depth  of  from  three  sixteenths  to  one  fourth  of  an  inch, — 
this  applies  to  all  conifers ;  and  if  this  covering  is  of  loose 
material  it  should  be  slightly  pressed  down,  but  if  it  is  of 
such  a  character  that  it  will  crust  after  being  wet,  it  should 
not  be. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  be  sown  on  any  given  area 
must  depend  largely  upon  its  percentage  of  fertility,  a  point 
which  can  and  should  be  determined  before  sowing.  About 
one  sixth  of  an  ounce  of  White  Pine  seed  is  deemed  a 
suitable  allowance  for  one  square  foot  of  bed  on  the  basis 
of  sixty  per  cent  fertility.  This  amount  should  produce  two 

1  If  the  ground  is  at  all  dry  the  seed-beds  should  be  thoroughly  \7atered 
a  day  or  so  before  the  seeds  are  sown,  and  when  in  a  suitable  condition  the 
surface  should  be  gone  over  with  a  rake,  care  being  taken  not  to  disturb  the 
buiface  when  it  is  wet  enough  to  bake. 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  95 

hundred  plants,  which  are  as  many  as  can  be  safely  grown 
on  one  square  foot,  although  a  greater  number  has  been 
frequently  produced  ;  but  only  in  extremely  fertile  soils  and 
under  favorable  conditions  can  so  great  a  number  be  grown. 
Probably  seed  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  plants  to  the 
square  foot  would  be  better.  Of  course  smaller  seeds  will 
require  less  weight  proportionally.  A  table  showing  the 
number  of  seeds  to  the  pound  of  the  important  species  of 
timber  trees  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  and  computa- 
tion can  be  made  suitable  for  each  one. 

Sowing  in  Drills.  The  seed-bed  should  be  as  carefully 
or  better  prepared  for  sowing  in  drills  than  in  the  case  of 
broadcast  sowing,  for  any  lumps  near  the  surface  will  greatly 
interfere  with  satisfactory  work,  and  especially  so  if  the 
seeds  are  to  be  sown  with  a  seed  drill,  as  then  the  covering 
must  be  that  of  which  the  surface  of  the  bed  is  composed. 
If  sowing  by  hand  be  practiced,  a  marking-board  as  wide 
as  the  rows  are  to  be  apart,  and  long  enough  to  reach  across 
the  bed,  must  be  provided.  For  conifers  strips  three  eighths 
of  an  inch  thick,  with  one  edge  V-shaped,  should  be  nailed 
on  each  edge,  the  V-edge  to  project  three  eighths  of  an 
inch  below  the  surface  of  the  board.  The  other  edge  can 
be  flush  with  the  top  of  the  board.  A  handle  similar  to  an 
old-fashioned  door-handle  can  be  fastened  on  the  top  of  the 
marker,  and  if  the  board  is  light  one  person  can  readily 
operate  it. 

To  mark  for  the  rows  place  the  marking-board  squarely 
across  the  bed,  with  the  V-projections  downward,  and  press 
it  down  with  a  slight  movement  endwise,  so  as  to  make 
grooves  the  full  depth  of  the  projecting  Vs.  A  pole  with 
the  distance  the  rows  are  to  be  apart  plainly  marked  on  it 
can  be  laid  alongside  of  the  bed  as  a  guide,  or  the  follow- 
ing projection  on  the  marker  can  be  placed  in  the  forward 
groove  and  thus  even  spacing  of  the  rows  be  made  easy. 
As  absolute  accuracy  is  not  essential,  any  convenient  method 
of  spacing  may  be  adopted.  The  seeds  can  now  be  dropped 
in  the  grooves  and  spaced  in  them  as  evenly  as  possible, 


96  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

after  which  they  should  be  covered  even  with  the  surface 
of  the  bed  with  fine  loose  soil,  or,  as  recommended  for 
broadcast  sowing,  leaf  mould  and  sand.  Coniferous  seeds 
should  be  placed  from  one  fourth  to  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  apart  in  the  rows,  the  distance  being  governed  by  the 
percentage  of  fertility  and  the  species.  After  the  seeds  are 
covered  a  board  can  be  laid  on  and  a  light  blow  with  a  spade 
be  given ;  or  the  operator  can  step  on  it,  if  the  covering  of 
the  seeds  is  of  loose  material;  if  not,  then  nothing  need  be 
done  with  it. 

When  broadleaf  seeds  are  to  be  sown,  the  width  of  the 
marker  and  the  thickness  and  depth  of  the  V-shaped  strips 
must  be  greater.  Rows  eight  inches  apart,  with  a  thickness 
and  depth  of  one  half  inch  for  the  Vs  will  serve  well  for 
nearly  all  broadleaf  trees  except  the  nut-bearing  ones  — 
directions  for  these  being  given  elsewhere  (page  117)  when 
considering  tap-rooted  species.  Elm  seeds  and  a  few  others 
can  be  sown  the  same  depth  as  conifers.  Nearly  all  broad- 
leaf seeds  should  be  spaced  from  one  to  one  and  one  half 
inches  apart  in  the  rows,  if  there  is  sixty  per  cent  fertility. 
This  is  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  to  be  removed  from 
the  seed-bed  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  or  the  second  year 
at  the  latest.  If  allowed  to  remain  longer,  they  should  be 
placed  farther  apart  in  rows. 

The  method  for  sowing  in  rows  thus  far  indicated  is  suit- 
able for  small  areas,  but  when  large  ones  are  to  be  sown  it 
is  advisable  to  use  a  seed  drill  for  such  seeds  as  it  is  fitted 
for.  A  well-devised  one,  —  and  there  are  such, — when 
properly  adjusted  and  operated,  will  not  only  save  much 
time  and  labor,  but  will  sow  more  evenly  than  can  be  done 
by  hand,  although  it  has  some  drawbacks,  one  of  which  is 
the  difficulty  experienced  in  running  it  across  the  beds. 
That  can  be  successfully  done,  but  it  takes  more  time  than 
to  run  it  lengthwise  and  there  is  danger  of  breaks  in  the  seed- 
ing. The  only  advantage  in  running  it  across  the  beds  lies 
in  convenience  in  cultivating  the  plants  ;  but  when  beds  are 
not  over  four  and  one  half  feet  wide  and  the  rows  are  length- 


'^•^fe, 


FENNSYLVANIA  STATE   FOREST   XrKSERV,   ASAPH,   PEXXSYLX  AMA 
Showing  lath  screens  over  seedlings.  —  Photographed  by  N.  A.  Caxdkins. 


WHITE   ASH 

In  the  experiment  forest  plantation  at  the  State  University,  Champaign 
County,  Illinois.  —  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


THE   FOREST  NURSERY  97 

wise,  there  Is  little  difficulty  experienced  in  reaching  half- 
way across  to  destroy  the  weeds  or  cultivate  between  the 
rows.  Another  objection  to  the  use  of  a  seed  drill  is  that  the 
seeds  are  necessarily  covered  with  the  soil  which  forms  the 
surface  of  the  bed,  and  unless  that  is  loose  and  friable  it  is 
liable  to  crust  and  prevent  the  tender  and  weak  plants  from 
breaking  through  it. 

If  the  beds  are  four  and  one  half  feet  wide  and  the  rows 
run  lengthwise  and  are  six  inches  apart,  then  eight  rows 
can  be  placed  on  a  bed  with  a  six-inch  border  next  the 
paths.  This  border  is  desirable  for  the  reason  that  if  close 
to  the  edge  the  plants  will  suffer  for  water  in  summer  and 
be  frozen  out  in  winter.  A  wide  board  can  be  used  for  a 
guide  and  the  operator  can  walk  on  it.  The  drill  not  only 
sows  the  seed  uniformly  but  covers  it,  thus  completing  the 
work  at  once.  Crusting  of  the  surface  can  be  avoided  by 
giving  the  bed  a  coating  that  will  not  crust. 

Screens.  The  seeds  being  sown,  they  must  be  protected 
from  destruction  by  birds,  germination  must  be  aided,  and 
the  tender  seedlings  shielded  from  the  burning  sun.  All 
these  ends  can  be  attained  by  using  screens  made  of  com- 
mon wood  laths  used  by  plasterers.  Procure  two  strips  of 
light,  strong,  straight-grained  lumber,  —  preferably  pine, 
—  one  inch  thick,  two  inches  wide,  and  six  feet  long.  Upon 
these  strips  nail  the  laths  crosswise,  placing  the  laths  as  far 
apart  as  they  are  wide.  This  will  cause  one  half  of  the  light 
to  be  shut  off.  The  laths  should  project  four  inches  at  each 
end  beyond  the  strips  to  which  they  are  nailed,  and  two 
nails  should  be  placed  in  both  ends  of  every  other  lath  to 
keep  the  screen  in  proper  form. 

To  hold  the  screens  in  place,  stakes  must  be  driven  along 
the  edges  of  the  beds,  four  feet  apart  across  and  six  feet 
apart  lengthwise.  These  stakes  must  be  driven  into  the 
•ground  deep  enough  to  be  firm  —  they  are  usually  about 
three  feet  long  —  and  must  also  project  above  the  surface 
from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches.  Near  the  top,  and  on  the 
side  next  to  the  plants,  pieces  an  inch  thick,  about  two  inches 


98  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

wide,  and  six  or  eight  inches  long  should  be  nailed  hori- 
zontally to  the  stakes,  on  which  the  screens  can  rest  when 
used  for  shading.  In  nailing  on  these  pieces,  place  those  on 
one  side  of  the  bed  two  inches  lower  than  on  the  other,  so 
as  to  give  a  slight  slope  to  the  screens.  This  will  cause  some 
of  the  rain  falling  on  them  to  be  carried  o£f  when  there  is  a 
heavy  downpour.  While  the  principal  use  of  the  screens  is 
to  shade  the  plants,  they  can  be  used  for  other  purposes  as 
will  be  seen. 

Protecting  the  Seeds  from  Birds.  There  are  sections  of 
the  country  where  birds  commit  serious  depredations  on  the 
seed-beds  and  some  method  must  be  adopted  to  prevent  them. 
A  recent  practice  is  to  coat  the  seeds  with  red  lead,  which 
the  birds  possibly  (?)  recognize  as  a  poison.  The  seeds 
should  be  moistened  and  enough  dry  lead  added  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  to  give  a  fair  color.  The  lead  does  not  ap- 
pear to  in  any  way  affect  germination.  While  not  ex- 
pensive the  system  requires  some  labor  and  care,  for  the 
lead  and  seeds  must  be  well  mingled  and  the  latter  dried 
before  they  can  be  sown  with  a  drill.  It  will  not  protect 
from  mice  and  squirrels,  nor  always  from  birds.  Full  and 
complete  protection  can  be  secured  if  the  screens  already 
described  are  used  to  aid  germination. 

Aiding  Germination.  Germination  is  best  secured  by  a 
continued  moist  condition  of  the  soil  in  the  seed-bed.  With- 
out moisture  germination  will  not  take  place,  and  if  once 
begun  and  then  arrested,  through  evaporation,  the  seed's 
vitality  is  either  generally  impaired  or  entirely  destroyed. 
There  is  generally  an  abundance  of  moisture  in  the  soil  in 
the  spring  of  the  year,  and  if  moderate  rains  are  frequent, 
nothing  need  be  done  to  retain  it ;  but  there  is  sometimes 
a  dry  period  at  that  time,  and,  if  so,  the  germination  of 
seeds  with  hard  shells  is  greatly  delayed,  and  partial  or 
complete  failure  may  ensue. 

The  most  satisfactory  known  method  of  controlling  the 
moisture  of  the  seed-bed  is  to  place  the  lath  screens,  already 
described,  over  the  beds,  elevated  only  one  or  two  inches 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  99 

above  the  surface,  and  i£  necessary  cover  tlie  open  spaces 
with  loose  laths.  The  loose  laths  can  be  removed  from  time 
to  time  as  germination  progresses  or  conditions  demand,  so 
that  by  the  time  the  plants  begin  to  show  aboveground  only 
one  half  of  the  sunlight  is  shut  off,  and  the  screens  should 
then  be  shifted.  If  the  soil  continues  moist,  no  screens  are 
necessary  to  aid  germination,  and  none  would  be  needed 
near  the  surface  unless  to  protect  from  the  birds,  but  if  put 
on  at  any  time  they  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  plants 
begin  to  break  through  the  surface.  This  method  protects 
the  seed-beds  from  drying  winds  and  bright  sunlight  until 
germination  takes  place,  and  until  the  roots  of  the  plants 
can  obtain  moisture  from  the  soil.  Also,  it  shields  the  seeds 
from  the  light  in  the  beginning  —  a  consideration  which 
seems  to  be  quite  important,  although  the  reason  appears 
to  be  somewhat  obscure  —  and  protects  them  from  birds. 

Protecting  from  Bright  Sunlight.  As  soon  as  conifer- 
ous seedlings  begin  to  show  aboveground  the  screens  should 
be  placed  on  the  blocks  that  have  been  nailed  to  the  stakes, 
in  which  position  they  will  protect  the  young  plants  from 
the  burning  rays  of  the  sun.  Broadleaf  trees  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  require  shading.  Judgment  must  be  exercised  in  hand- 
ling the  screens,  for  no  specific  rules  can  govern  all  con- 
ditions which  changing  atmospheric  phenomena  may  bring 
about.  There  is  no  need  for  them  on  a  cloudy  day,  or  when 
it  rains,  unless  an  exceptionally  heavy  fall  occurs,  when 
they  will  serve  to  carry  off  a  part  of  it.  It  is  advisable  to 
remove  them  during  warm,  cloudy,  and  moderately  wet 
weather  to  avoid  disease.  They  must  also  be  removed  to 
permit  weeding,  cultivation,  and,  in  most  cases,  watering. 
There  is  little  or  no  need  of  them  after  the  first  year,  and 
they  can  be  removed  by  the  last  of  September  and  carefully 
stored  away  for  next  year's  use.  The  screens  provide  a  par- 
tial shade  which  the  tender  plants  demand,  and,  to  a  limited 
extent,  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  surface 
of  the  beds.  The  benefits  resulting  from  their  use  far  more 
than  equal  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 


100  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Care  and  Cultivation.  With  the  appearance  of  the 
plants  aboveground  diligence  in  watching  their  condition 
must  be  increased.  The  little  seedlings  are  weak  and  ten- 
der in  their  early  days  and  must  be  cared  for.  Their  roots 
extend  but  a  little  way  into  the  ground,  and  should  the  sui*- 
face  for  an  inch  or  two  in  depth  become  dry  the  plants  will 
either  die  from  lack  of  moisture  or  be  checked  in  growth ; 
therefore  provision  must  be  made  to  supjjly  water  in  case 
insufficient  rain  falls ;  but  what  is  termed  "  artificial  water- 
ing "  should  not  be  resorted  to  unless  it  is  clearly  neces- 
sary. It  is  not  always  advisable  to  water  young  plants  as 
soon  as  the  surface  of  the  ground  appears  dry.  Examina- 
tion should  be  made  to  ascertain  how  near  the  surface  moist 
soil  can  be  found,  and  if  close  at  hand,  artificial  watering 
should  not  be  undertaken  ;  but  if  the  soil  proves  to  be  dry 
around  the  roots,  then  watering  becomes  necessary ;  and 
when  it  is  done  there  should  be  enough  applied  to  last  sev- 
eral days,  for  light  or  intermittent  watering  may  be  more 
disastrous  than  none  at  c.ll.  A  slight  sprinkling  with  a  hose 
or  watering-pot  will  soon  dry  out  and  leave  the  ground 
crusted  and  baked,  with  cracks  occurring  in  the  surface 
through  which  evaporation  takes  place  rapidly.  The  neces- 
sity for  thorough  watering  when  once  begun  cannot  be  too 
strongly  insisted  upon.  The  ground  should  be  wet  down  as 
far  as  the  roots  extend  at  the  very  least,  —  deeper  would 
be  better,  —  and  kept  in  that  condition  until  rain  comes  to 
their  relief.  Water  should  be  applied  slowly,  giving  time 
for  it  to  soak  into  the  ground.  In  large  nurseries  an  ample 
supply  should  be  provided  and  led  in  pipes,  with  hydrants 
attached,  so  as  to  reach  the  entire  field,  where  it  can  be 
thrown  on  the  beds  from  a  hose  with  a  spray  nozzle.  If  a 
small  area  only  is  planted  a  watering-pot  can  be  used,  but 
if  the  ground  is  to  be  successively  devoted  to  growing  tree 
plants  such  a  makeshift  will  not  prove  satisfactory. 

Surface  irrigation  of  seed-beds  in  forest  nurseries,  as  is 
practiced  on  farms  in  arid  regions,  has  been  tried  in  sev- 
eral instances  with  varying  success.  Its  adoption  must  be 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  101 

determined  by  conditions.  Sub-irrigation — carrying  water 
in  porous  or  perforated  pipes  eight  or  ten  inches  below  the 
surface  —  has  succeeded  well  in  greenhouses  and  possibly 
might  be  adopted  in  forest  nurseries.  Experiments  in  that 
direction  should  be  undertaken,  for  that  system  puts  the 
water  just  where  needed  and  does  not  cause  cracking  of  the 
surface. 

No  matter  how  carefully  watering  with  a  hose  or  a  pot 
may  be  done,  there  is  invariably  formed  a  muddy,  compact 
surface  of  the  soil,  and  this  is  followed  by  crusting  and 
cracking  of  the  surface  as  soon  as  the  sun  shines  upon  it 
for  a  few  hours,  or  a  strong  wind  blows  over  it.  After  every 
such  occurrence,  and  also  after  every  heavy  rainfall,  the 
crust  which  forms  should,  where  the  system  of  sowing  will 
permit,  be  broken  and  the  surface  pulverized  as  soon  as 
the  gTOund  is  dry  enough  to  work.  By  doing  this  less 
water  will  be  required,  for  however  strange  it  may  appear, 
fining  and  pulverizing  the  surface  soil  actually  retards 
evaporation.  This  fact  is  well  understood  by  those  who 
have  tried  it.  It  is  so  thoroughly  known  by  farmers  over  a 
vast  area  in  the  so-called  semi-arid  sections  of  the  Great 
•West,  where  there  is  but  slight  rainfall,  that  profitable 
crops  are  being  grown  though  not  a  drop  of  water  comes 
to  the  ground  after  the  seeds  are  sown  —  success  being 
achieved  by  ploughing  deep  just  before  the  rainy  season, 
and  this  followed  by  a  frequent  stirring  of  the  surface  of 
the  soil  where  the  character  of  the  crop  will  permit  it.  A 
blanket  of  dust,  however  dry  it  may  be,  prevents  rapid 
evaporation. 

Stirring  and  making  fine  the  surface  of  the  soil  not  only 
lessens  evaporation,  but  it  admits  air  to  the  roots,  which  is 
necessary,  and,  in  addition,  it  keeps  down  weeds  and  less- 
ens the  labor  of  removing  them  by  hand.  Clean  cultiva- 
tion is  as  important  in  the  forest  nursery  as  elsewhere,  and 
it  cannot  be  begun  too  early ;  and  that  means  stirring 
the  soil  whenever  it  can  be  safely  done.  Stirring  the  soil  to 
a  slight  depth,  but  not  too  close  to  the  plants,  can  be  pro- 


102  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

fitably  kept  up  until  late  summer.  Manifestly  this  does  not 
apply  to  broadcast  sowing,  as  no  cultivation  can  take  place 
there.  Only  hand-weeding  can  there  be  indulged  in. 

Damping-off.  During  the  first  few  months  of  the  life  of 
the  plants  they  are  subject  to  a  fungus  disease  known  as 
"  damping-off."  They  may  look  all  right  at  night  and  the 
next  morning  be  wilted  or  covered  with  a  thin  spider-web- 
like film,  and  their  death-knell  has  been  sounded.  They  will 
soon  die.  It  is  quite  common  in  greenhouses  and  is  there 
known  as  "  the  Fungus  of  the  Cutting-Bench."  There  is 
no  known  remedy  for  a  plant  that  has  been  attacked,  and 
unless  at  once  arrested  the  disease  will  rapidly  spread  to 
all  adjacent  plants.  Removal  of  all  infected  plants,  and 
the  soil  in  which  they  stand,  and  giving  the  remainder  of 
the  ground  a  coat  of  dry  hot  sand  has  been  the  remedy 
usually  adopted  to  stop  its  spread.  It  is  stated  in  the  public 
prints  that  in  Germany  spraying  with  the  well-known  Bor- 
deaux mixture  has  shown  excellent  results  in  preventing  an 
attack.  As  this  mixture  is  known  to  prevent  fungus  dis- 
eases on  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  is  harmless,  inexpen- 
sive, and  easily  applied,  it  would  be  well  to  give  it  a  thorough 
trial.  Damping-off  is  more  prevalent  among  conifers  than 
among  broadleaf  trees,  although  Maple  and  Beech  are 
frequently  affected.  It  is  apparently  induced  by  excessive 
moisture  in  the  soil,  accompanied  by  damp,  warm  weather 
and  absence  of  sunshine.  Thick  sowing  also  appears  to 
have  something  to  do  with  inviting  attacks.  Good  drainage 
and  removal  of  the  screens  on  cloudy  days,  together  with 
providing  ample  room  for  the  plants,  would  certainly  be 
the  logical  method  of  preventing  it.  Only  prevention  can 
cope  with  it.  If  one  side  of  the  screens  is  lower  than  the 
other,  as  suggested,  and  they  are  left  on  while  it  rains, 
some  of  the  water  which  falls  on  them  will  be  carried  off, 
and  this  may  aid. 

Protecting  Seedlings  in  Winter.  By  early  autumn  all 
plant  growth  will  have  ceased  and  preparations  should  be 
made  to  protect  the  shallow-rooted  seedlings  from  being 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  103 

thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing during  winter  and  early  spring.  One  method  of  doing 
this  is  to  cover  the  whole  bed  an  inch  or  two  deep  with 
moss  and  decaying  leaves  from  the  forest,  being  careful 
not  to  put  too  much  over  the  plants.  Conifers  rarely  reach  a 
height  of  two  inches  at  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth 
and  a  slight  covering  of  their  tops  will  do  no  harm.  Pine 
needles  have  served  as  an  excellent  covering  in  many  known 
cases,  although  it  has  been  claimed  by  some  that  they  heat 
and  thus  destroy  the  plants ;  but  it  is  hard  to  conceive  that 
heating  can  occur  when  the  covering  does  not  exceed  two 
inches  in  thickness.  Where  failure  has  occurred  in  the  use 
of  pine  needles  it  has  undoubtedly  been  caused  by  covering 
too  deeply.  If  the  materials  named  cannot  be  procured,  cut 
straw  will  serve  a  very  good  purpose,  or  a  covering  of  coarse 
manure  or  barnyard  litter  placed  between  the  rows  and 
close  to  the  plants  will  answer  better  than  nothing,  al- 
though these  may  be  filled  with  weed  and  grass  seeds.  If 
green  hemlock  boughs  can  be  obtained  and  spread  several 
inches  thick  over  the  entire  bed  they  will  prove  a  very 
good  protection.  A  few  plants  may  be  broken  down  but  not 
many.  The  first  snow  that  falls  will  be  likely  to  pass  down 
through  the  boughs,  surrounding  and  covering  the  plants, 
and  may  lie  there  until  spring.  The  boughs  gradually  shed 
their  leaves,  and  by  the  time  danger  is  passed  nothing  but 
the  naked  branches  are  left  as  covering.  The  leaves  will 
act  as  a  mulch,  although  they  seem  to  possess  little  manu- 
rial  value.  The  most  trying  time  is  during  the  months  of 
February  and  March,  and  the  removal  of  the  covering 
should  not  take  place  until  alternate  freezing  and  thawing 
has  ceased  ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  always  to 
determine  that  time. 

Another  plan  has  been  adopted  at  the  New  York  State 
Forest  Nursery  at  Saranac  Inn,  and  also  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania State  Forest  Nursery  at  Mont  Alto,  which  has  thus 
far  proved  very  successful,  and,  although  somewhat  expen- 
sive, yet  it  costs  but  little  more  than  the  others  and  results 


104  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

appear  fully  to  justify  the  expense.  Nothing  is  done  with 
the  seed-beds  until  snow  occurs,  and  when  two  or  three 
inches  have  fallen,  coarse,  cheap  burlaps  are  placed  over 
the  beds  and  weights  of  some  sort  placed  on  the  edges  to 
prevent  winds  blowing  them  off.  The  snow  under  the  bur- 
laps melts  slowly  and  during  some  winters  may  not  melt 
until  near  spring.  Even  though  the  snow  under  the  burlaps 
should  melt  early  and  none  fall  afterward,  they  alone  fur- 
nish a  fairly  good  protection.  But  if  deep  snows  fall  after 
the  burlaps  are  put  on,  and  remain  during  the  winter,  there 
is  great  danger  that  the  plants  will  be  smothered  and  die 
for  want  of  air,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  a  part 
of  the  snow.  It  is  well  known  that  wheat  and  grass  are 
frequently  killed  by  being  deeply  covered  with  snow  for  a 
month  or  so.  Success  with  any  system  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  character  of  the  winter.  If  the  surface  of  the  beds 
can  be  continually  covered  until  spring  with  a  blanket  of 
snow  not  to  exceed  four  to  six  inches  in  depth,  no  other 
covering  will  be  required.  It  is  manifest  that  climatic  con- 
ditions modify  or  entirely  do  away  with  the  necessity  for 
winter  protection.  In  many  sections  of  the  country  no  pro- 
tection whatever  is  needed  and  in  others  more  or  less  must 
be  given.  A  knowledge  of  the  prevailing  winter  conditions 
should  guide  in  determining  what  should  be  done. 

Fertilizers  for  the  Nursery.  Trees  respond  to  a  gener- 
ous diet  as  well  as  do  other  growths  of  the  soil,  and  they 
require  substantially  the  same  kind  of  food.  When  a  tree 
is  well  established  its  roots  run  deeper  in  the  ground  than 
ordinary  farm  crops,  and  by  so  doing  secure  food  there 
which  they  —  except  the  tap-rooted  ones  —  cannot  do  in 
early  life  when  the  small  roots  reach  but  a  little  way  down  ; 
and  this  fact  makes  fertility  of  the  surface  soil  highly  essen- 
tial. If  the  surface  is  fertile  there  is  less  wandering  of  the 
roots  after  food,  and  the  plants  grown  in  such  soil  have  a 
more  compact  and  vigorous  root  system,  are  stronger,  and 
in  every  way  better  able  to  withstand  the  shock  of  removal 
to  the  forest. 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  105 

Undoubtedly  the  best  fertilizer  for  a  forest  nursery  is  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  frequently  called  muck,  —  really 
humus,  —  for  in  such  is  the  most  vigorous  tree-growth.^ 
But  that  cannot  always  be  secured  in  ample  quantities  —  and 
it  should  be  liberally  applied  —  and  something  else  must 
be  provided.  The  next  best  is  well-rotted  barnyard  manure, 
which,  when  free  from  weed  seeds,  is  very  difficult  to  ob- 
tain. Still,  it  can  be  used,  even  when  containing  weed  seeds, 
by  ploughing  or  spading  it  under  deeply  and  trusting  to 
time  to  destroy  the  germinating  power  of  the  seeds,  some- 
thing which  may  take  many  years. 

Failing  to  secure  humus,  or  barnyard  manure,  in  a  satis- 
factory condition,  resort  must  be  had  to  what  are  known  as 
artificial  fertilizers.  Caution  should  be  exercised  in  choos- 
ing these.  Before  determining  which  to  use,  careful  experi- 
ments should  be  made  to  ascertain  which  is  best  for  the 
soil  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  for  soils  are  seldom  alike. 
Some  artificial  fertilizers  may  serve  a  good  purpose  on  one 
soil  and  be  of  no  benefit  whatever  on  another.  There  are 
two,  however,  which  almost  invariably  fill  the  demand  for 
forest  nursery  enrichment,  and  certainly  can  do  no  harm. 
They  are  ground  bone  and  unleached  wood  ashes.  The 
former  furnishes  phosphoric  acid,  a  small  amount  of  lime, 
and  some  nitrogen ;  and  the  latter  gives  the  much-needed 
potash.  Fertilizers  that  are  soon  exhausted  are  not  advis- 
able. Something  is  required  that  will  last  for  two  or  three 
years,  —  until  the  plants  can  be  removed,  —  and  this  feature 
makes  ground  bone  and  wood  ashes  admirably  adapted  to 
nursery  conditions. 

A  liberal  application  of  wood  ashes  a  few  days  before 
planting,  followed  by  ground  bone,  will  serve  a  good  pur- 
pose in  nearly  all  soils.  They  should  be  applied  separately 
for  the  reason  that,  if  mingled  before  applying,  the  potash 
in  the  ashes  will  liberate  the  nitrogen  in  the  bone  meal  and 
it  will  be  lost.  Apply  the  ashes  and  mingle  them  with  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  about  three  inches,  and  two  or  three  days 
^  See  footnote  to  page  90. 


106  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

thereafter  add  the  ground  bone,  which  need  not  be  so  deeply 
mixed.  The  seeds  can  then  be  sown  at  once,  as  contact  with 
the  bone  meal  does  not  affect  their  germination  or  vitality. 
From  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  bone  meal  and  twenty-five 
pounds  of  unleached  wood  ashes  to  a  bed  four  feet  wide 
and  one  hundred  feet  long  will  be  a  moderate  application. 
If  the  bone  is  not  ground  very  fine  its  effects  will  be  felt  for 
four  or  five  years,  and  an  application  made  within  three 
years  thereafter  can  be  much  lighter. 

Kainitis  largely  used  in  German  forest  nurseries  in  place 
of  wood  ashes.  It  is  an  impure  salt  with  a  large  amount  of 
potash  in  it.  Its  use  in  this  country  has  been  quite  limited 
and  it  has  not  met  with  unvarying  success.  Like  ashes  it 
should  be  applied  a  few  days  before  the  seeds  are  sown,  for 
it  is  liable  to  destroy  their  vitality  if  in  actual  contact. 
Other  fertilizers  are  being  experimented  with  in  this  coun- 
try, but  not  enough  is  known  of  the  results  to  justify  an 
opinion  of  their  usefulness.  Lime  produces  good  results  on 
some  soils  but  not  on  all.  It  is  not  plant  food  of  itself,  but 
releases  some  that  would  be  unavailable  without  its  aid. 
Norway  Spruce  is  said  to  be  injured  by  it. 

Thinning-out.  If  seeds  have  been  sown  thickly  the  seed- 
lings will  necessarily  be  crowded.  This  may  happen  by  acci- 
dent or  through  a  high  percentage  of  germination,  and  if  it 
has  occurred  the  plants  in  excess  of  the  proper  number 
should  be  promptly  removed,  for  a  crowded  condition  not 
only  tends  to  disease,  but  the  crowded  plants  will  certainly 
be  weak  and  stunted,  should  they  grow.  Nothing  is  gained 
but  much  lost  by  crowding  in  the  seed-bed  or  in  the  trans- 
plant nursery. 

Removing  the  Plants.  In  removing  the  plants  from  the 
seed-beds  and  from  the  transplant  nursery  extreme  care 
should  be  exercised  in  taking  them  up  so  that  their  roots 
will  be  injured  as  little  as  possible.  We  should  remember 
that  roots  are  a  positive  necessity  to  a  tree's  life,  and  they 
should  not  be  destroyed  when  it  can  be  avoided.  There  is, 
naturally,  a  properly  proportioned  development  of  roots 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  107 

and  branches  in  a  tree  —  a  complete  equilibrium  of  parts. 
In  removing  a  tree  from  where  it  is  growing  some  ot  the 
roots  are  unavoidably  broken  off  and  the  natural  balance 
is  destroyed,  and  increased  demand  is  thus  made  upon 
those  which  i-emain  when  the  tree  is  again  placed  in  the 
ground.  With  broadleaf  trees  the  balance  can  be  somewhat 
restored  by  cutting  back  the  crown,  but  that  cannot  be  done 
with  conifers  intended  for  timber.  No  cutting  back  can  take 
place  with  these,  except  where  a  vagrant  limb  may  have 
started  out  in  an  effort  to  assume  leadership.  To  cut  back 
the  leader  practically  ruins  the  tree  unless  another  one  can 
be  encouraged,  an  effort  by  no  means  likely  to  be  success- 
ful. Therefore  but  little  lessening  of  the  demands  upon  the 
remaining  roots  can  be  made,  and  the  only  thing  that  can 
be  done  to  aid  the  tree  in  its  struggle  for  life  is  to  save  all 
of  the  roots  possible. 

The  best  way  to  accomplish  this,  when  removing  the 
plants  from  the  seed-beds  and  transplant  nursery,  is  to  dig 
a  trench  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  inches  deep  —  the  depth  to 
be  governed  by  the  depth  the  roots  have  penetrated  — 
along  a  row  of  plants  and  a  few  inches  from  it.  Then 
thrust  a  spading-fork,  with  narrow  tines  spaced  an  inch 
and  one  half  apart,  to  the  full  depth  of  the  trench  and  mid- 
way between  the  row  and  the  one  next  back  of  it,  and 
gently  raise  the  plants  out,  carefully  breakiug  the  soil  so 
as  to  liberate  the  roots  with  as  little  injury  as  possible. 
Seizing  the  plants  by  their  tops  and  pulling  them  out 
should  not  be  tolerated ;  but,  instead,  the  ground  should 
be  broken  and  carefully  shaken  from  the  roots.  The  re- 
moval of  one  row  gives  opportunity  to  treat  the  one  next 
back  of  it  in  the  same  way.  A  little  experience  will  demon- 
strate the  value  of  extreme  care. 

Root  Pruning.  It  is  not  denied  that  pruning  the  roots 
of  seedlings  or  transplants  may  sometimes  be  advisable. 
If  they  have  tap-roots,  or  other  roots  are  so  long  as  to  re- 
quire considerable  digging  to  place  them  in  a  natural  posi- 
tion, then   cutting  off  the  tap-root  or  the  straggling  one, 


108  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

may  be  the  best  thing  to  do  —  certainly  so  in  the  case  of 
the  tap-root ;  but  if  there  is  no  tap-root,  or  the  roots  are 
reasonably  compact,  there  is  no  reason  for  cutting  off  any 
unless  seriously  injured.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  to 
prune  uninjured  roots  more  or  less  when  setting  out  a  tree. 
What  the  purpose  is  cannot  be  imagined.  If  a  person  has 
already  suffered  severely  from  loss  of  blood  it  would  be  a 
hazardous  remedy  to  bleed  him  still  more. 

Heeling-in.  It  is  sometimes  found  advisable  to  remove 
plants  from  the  seed-beds  or  from  the  transplant  nursery 
before  circumstances  will  permit  their  being  set  out  in  the 
forest ;  or  it  may  be  advisable  to  take  up  seedlings  a  few 
days  before  setting  them  out  in  the  transplant  nursery,  in 
order  to  make  the  ground  ready  for  another  sowing.  In 
either  case  they  must  be  so  cared  for  that  their  roots  will 
not  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  wind,  or  frost,  or  in  any  way 
become  dry.  The  accepted  method  of  doing  this  is  termed 
"  heeling-in."  This  is  accomplished  by  digging  a  trench 
about  as  deep  as  the  plants  are  long,  including  their  roots, 
with  one  side  inclined  about  twenty  degrees  from  the  per- 
pendicular, and  placing  the  plants  against  the  sloping  side 
and  covering  the  roots  and  a  portion  of  the  tops  with  fine 
earth,  care  being  taken  to  fill  all  the  interstices  around  the 
roots.  This  filling-in  is  essential,  for,  if  not  done,  the  roots 
are  liable  to  become  dry  and  injury  or  death  of  the  plants 
may  ensue.  The  plants  should  not  be  placed  too  thickly, 
for  if  they  are,  heating  and  moulding  are  liable  to  occur, 
and  this  will  kill  them.  When  the  row  of  plants  has  been 
properly  covered  with  five  or  six  inches  of  soil,  another  row 
can  be  placed  parallel  and  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
They  should  not  be  disturbed  until  taken  out  for  trans- 
planting into  the  forest  or  transplant  nursery,  when  their 
roots  should  be  at  once  immersed  in  thin  mud  and  as  soon 
as  possible  placed  in  the  ground  where  they  are  to  grow. 
If  the  ground  is  at  all  dry  at  the  time  of  heeling-in,  it 
should  be  well  watered  before  the  plants  are  placed  in  it, 
and  not  allowed  to  become  dry  again  before  their  removal. 


THE  FOREST  NURSERY  109 

Nurserymen  sometimes  heel-in  plants  to  await  shipment. 
If  it  is  carefully  done,  and  they  are  not  allowed  to  remain 
in  that  condition  too  long,  little  injury  may  occur ;  but  it 
is  by  far  the  best  way  to  let  them  remain  where  they  grew 
until  the  day  of  shipment  arrives.  However,  it  will  be  bet- 
ter to  heel  them  in  than  to  let  them  start  to  grow  in  the 
beds  before  removal.  Neither  should  they  be  kept  long 
enough  in  the  heeling-in  state  for  growth  to  begin.  The 
practice  of  taking  plants  up  in  the  fall  and  heeling  them 
in  has  nothing  to  justify  it.  It  is  true  that  by  so  doing 
they  can  be  kept  dormant  in  the  spring  and  allow  greater 
time  to  handle  and  transplant ;  but  that  can  be  accom- 
plished just  as  well  by  taking  them  up  in  early  spring.  It 
is  little  better  than  fall  planting,  which  is  not  deemed  good 
practice.    Only  cold  storage  will  meet  the  case. 

Removal  of  the  Plants  to  the  Forest.  The  best 
method  of  taking  up  the  plants  has  already  been  indi- 
cated, but  it  should  here  be  added  that  immediately  on  re- 
moval from  the  ground  in  the  nursery  they  should  be 
placed  in  some  receptacle  and  evenly  stratified  with  wet 
moss  and  kept  carefully  covered  until  set  out  in  the  forest 
or  heeled-in.  The  roots  must  not  be  exposed  to  sunshine, 
drying  air,  wind,  or  frost.  They  must  at  all  times  be  kept 
moist  and  the  least  time  possible  should  elapse  between  re- 
moving the  plants  from  the  nursery  and  placing  them  in 
the  ground  where  they  are  to  grow. 

Setting  the  Plants  in  the  Forest.  Presuming  the 
ground  to  have  been  properly  spaced,  two  men  and  a  boy 
should  be  in  readiness  to  begin  work  on  the  arrival  of  the 
plants.  One  of  the  men  should  have  an  ordinary  mattock 
with  which  to  dig  the  holes,  which  he  should  make  large 
enough  and  deep  enough  to  give  the  roots  ample  room.  A 
few  strokes  of  the  mattock  will  do  this,  but  some  earth  to 
mingle  with  the  roots  should  be  made  fine  by  the  man 
using  the  mattock.  The  other  man  should  receive  a  plant 
from  the  boy  who  is  carrying  a  quantity  of  them  in  a 
bucket,  where  their  roots  are  submerged  in  thin  mud,  and 


110  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

place  it  in  the  hole  so  that  when  set  out  it  will  stand  a 
trifle  deeper  than  in  the  nursery.  Then,  as  the  ground  set- 
tles around  it,  the  plant  will  bear  practically  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  surface  that  it  did  in  the  nursery.  Fine  earth 
should  he  carefully  mingled  among  and  on  the  roots  and 
firmly  pressed  down.  If  there  are  any  long  roots  which 
cannot  be  placed  in  a  natural  position  without  much  dig- 
ging they  may  be  curled  around  in  the  excavation.  That 
is  better  than  to  cut  or  break  them  off.  While  packing  the 
earth  firmly  around  the  roots  and  plant  may  seem  objec- 
tionable, experience  shows  it  to  be  advisable.  The  earth 
should  come  in  actual  contact  with  the  roots  to  secure  the 
best  results.  If  sods  have  been  removed,  or  decaying 
leaves  can  be  handily  obtained,  these  should  be  placed 
around  the  plant  to  act  as  a  mulch.  Decaying  wood  or  even 
stones  serve  a  good  purpose  in  preventing  rapid  evapora- 
tion from  around  the  roots. 

Various  planting  implements  have  been  devised  and 
used,  but  none  have  proved  so  effective  and  practical  as  the 
mattock  in  the  hands  of  an  intelligent  and  industrious  man 
who  will  dig  the  hole  large  enough  and  provide  fine  earth 
to  place  among  the  roots.  Any  method  which  compels 
cramping  or  packing  the  roots  together  is  objectionable. 
Plants  thus  set  out  may,  and  many  do,  live,  but  to  place 
the  roots  in  their  natural  position  is  by  far  the  best  way. 

If  the  plants  must  be  shipped  to  a  distance  requiring 
several  days  in  transmission,  some  one  who  has  had  expe- 
rience, and  is  an  expert  in  packing  the  various  species  for 
shipment,  should  be  engaged.  Unless  the  work  is  under- 
standingly  done  the  plants  are  liable  to  injury  or  death, 
through  heating,  moulding,  or  drying  of  the  roots.  Experi- 
ment in  that  line  is  liable  to  be  very  expensive,  and  writ- 
ten directions  can  hardly  be  expected  to  give  the  necessary 
information.  In  all  cases  plants  should  be  unpacked  and 
heeled  in  immediately  on  arrival  at  place  of  destination, 
unless  promptly  set  out  in  the  forest. 


XIV 

THE  TRANSPLANT  NURSERY 

A  Transplant  Nursery  may  be  defined  as  grouud  into 
which  seedling  trees  are  removed  in  order  that  a  better 
root  system  may  be  developed  prior  to  placing  them  in 
their  permanent  home  —  the  removal  from  the  seed-bed  to 
the  transplant  nursery  occurring  during  the  first  few  years 
of  the  seedling's  life.  If  trees  are  allowed  to  remain  long 
where  the  seed  was  sown  the  chances  for  successful  removal 
diminish  rapidly  as  the  years  go  by.  It  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  remove  any  but  the  very  smallest  without  serious 
mutilation  of  their  roots,  and  this  mutilation  unavoidably 
happens  to  the  most  important  part  of  the  root  system,  the 
small  fibrous  portion.  It  is  these  fibrous  roots  that  send 
out  the  little  hairs  with  microscopic  mouths  which  suck  in 
the  moisture  and  mineral  food,  and  it  is  these  roots  that 
suffer  most  in  removal  of  the  tree  from  its  birthplace.  If 
the  tree  is  removed  from  the  seed-bed  when  young,  its 
roots  have  not  spread  far  and  their  renewal  is  necessarily 
close  to  the  stem,  and  if  a  second  removal  occurs  within 
two  or  three  years,  the  roots  will  be  found  so  compact  that 
comparatively  few  of  them  will  be  seriously  injured.  Such 
being  the  case  the  tree  will  be  far  better  able  to  withstand 
the  shock  of  removal  to  the  forest  than  if  it  had  few  such 
roots,  which  would  be  the  case  had  no  removal  to  the  trans- 
plant nursery  occurred.  Commercial  nurserymen  have  long 
acted  upon  this  fact,  and  they  seldom  send  out  either  fruit 
or  ornamental  trees  that  have  not  been  transplanted  once 
or  oftener  —  frequently  three  times. 

The  necessity  for  this  treatment  attaches  itself  with 
greater  significance  to  coniferous  than  to  broadleaf  trees. 
If  the  former  are  allowed  to  grow  without  disturbance  of 


112  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

their  roots  by  transplanting  until  they  reach  the  age  of  ten 
or  more  years,  it  is  seldom  that  they  will  survive  a  removal. 
Their  roots  have  penetrated  the  soil  so  deeply  that  the  fi- 
brous ones  at  the  ends  are  unavoidably  lost  by  that  oper- 
ation. This  is  also  true  of  such  broadleaf  trees  as  have  tap- 
roots. Their  successful  removal  is  difficult  at  best,  but 
practically  impossible  if  allowed  to  grow  to  ten  or  more 
years  of  age  before  deprivation  of  that  especial  feature. 
Broadleaf  trees  that  have  no  tap-roots  need  not  necessarily 
be  removed  to  the  transplant  nursery,  but  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  forest  when  one,  two,  or  three  years  of  age, 
depending  upon  the  rapidity  of  growth  in  early  life  and 
the  character  of  the  forest  ground  in  which  they  are  to  be 


In  addition  to  the  foregoing  it  should  be  realized  that 
the  early  growth  of  most  conifers,  especially  White  Pine 
and  the  Spruces,  is  very  slow.  A  White  Pine  is  not  likely 
to  reach  a  greater  height  than  twelve  inches  during  its  first 
five  years'  growth.  The  sixth  year  it  may  grow  ten  or  more 
inches,  and  from  that  time  on  it  may  annually  add  to  its 
height  twenty,  or  even  thirty  inches,  until  it  reaches  the 
age  of  forty  or  fifty  years,  when  its  growth  begins  to  lessen. 
Because  of  this  slow  growth  in  early  life  it  is  best  to  give 
it  a  home  in  the  transplant  nursery  until  near  the  age  when 
vigorous  growth  begins,  in  order  to  guard  against  the 
many  dangers  which  would  beset  it  if  placed  where  it  could 
not  be  cared  for. 

Probably  two  years  in  the  seed-bed  and  two  in  the  trans- 
plant grounds  will  more  certainly  bring  success  than  a 
longer  or  shorter  period  in  either  ,  yet  in  case  of  broadcast 
sowing  in  the  seed-bed  it  has  sometimes  been  found  advis- 
able to  remove  them  to  the  transplant  nursery  when  one 
year  old,  especially  if  the  growth  has  been  vigorous  or  the 
plants  are  crowded  ;  but  where  drill  sowing  has  been  adopted 
there  is  less  liability  of  crowding  and  they  may  remain 
there  for  two  years  and  then  be  placed  in  the  transplant 
grounds.  If  one-year-old  seedlings  are  put  in  the  transplant 


THE  TRANSPLANT  NURSERY  113 

nursery  it  may  be  best  to  let  them  remain  there  for  three 
years ;  but  this  must  depend  upon  their  size  and  vigor,  and 
the  character  of  the  forest  area  into  which  they  are  to  be 
transferred.  They  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  their 
own  there.  As  a  rule  White  Pine  can  be  removed  into  the 
forest  when  four  years  old,  for  it  is  then  about  ready  to 
begin  a  vigorous  and  rapid  growth ;  yet  good  results  have 
been  achieved  by  setting  three-year-old  seedlings  in  the 
forest.  If  not  removed  to  the  transplant  ground  until  two 
years  old,  two  years'  sojourn  therein  should  be  sufficient. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  forest  area  to  which  the 
plants  are  to  be  removed  it  may  be  advisable  to  let  the 
seedlings  remain  undisturbed  in  the  seed-beds  until  three 
years  old  and  then  remove  them  directly  to  the  forest.  Of 
course  this  would  be  the  most  economical  method,  if  suc- 
cessful, which  it  sometimes  is  when  there  is  an  ample  rain- 
fall for  the  first  year,  and  rank  vegetable  growth  does  not 
rob  them  of  light,  food,  and  moisture.  That  this  plan  suc- 
ceeds in  many  cases  is  true,  but  the  chances  are  somewhat 
against  it. 

The  transplant  nursery  is  a  simple  affair.  It  should  be 
near  the  seed-beds  to  save  time,  labor,  and  exposure  of  roots. 
Fertilization  and  preparation  should  be  the  same  as  for 
seed-sowing.  Beds  may  be  prepared  or  the  ground  left 
level  with  frequent  paths  constructed  for  convenience  or 
to  carry  off  surplus  rainfall.  The  plants  can  be  set  in  rows 
of  any  convenient  length.  For  conifers  the  rows  may  be 
from  six  to  eight  inches  apart  and  the  plants  from  three 
to  four  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Both  of  these  dimensions 
may  be  changed  for  economy  of  ground,  but  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  crowd  the  plants  so  that  they  will  suffer 
for  either  food  or  moisture.  For  broadleaf  plants  the  rows 
should  be  a  few  inches  farther  apart  and  the  distance  be- 
tween them  in  the  rows  a  little  more  than  for  conifers.  To 
facilitate  planting  a  furrow  should  be  made  just  deep  enough 
to  let  the  roots  rest  on  the  bottom  so  that  when  they  are 
covered  the  plants  will  be  a  trifle  deeper  in  the  ground 


114  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

than  when  they  stood  in  the  seed-bed.  They  should  be  care- 
fully placed  in  the  furrows  and  fine  soil  put  over  their  roots 
and  well  packed  around  them.  Compacting  the  soil  around 
the  roots  is  very  essential,  for  without  it  failure  is  likely  to 
occur,  even  though  rains  should  follow  or  watering  be  re- 
sorted to.  The  soil  should  everywhere  come  in  contact  with 
the  roots. 

When  the  plants  are  taken  from  the  seed-beds  their  roots 
should  be  carefully  protected  and  no  delay  be  allowed  be- 
tween their  removal  and  replacement  in  the  ground.  A  few 
minutes  of  hot  sunshine,  strong  wind,  or  frost  at  this  time 
may  be  fatal.  Cultivation  of  the  transplant  nursery,  by 
keeping  down  the  weeds  and  loosening  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  adds  to  the  vigor  and  growth  of  the  plants  the  same  as 
with  farm  and  garden  crops  and  should  be  no  more  neglected 
in  one  than  in  the  other. 

Notwithstanding  that  full  instructions  for  growing  plants 
have  thus  been  given,  —  and  success  can  be  achieved  by 
following  them,  —  any  one  desiring  to  plant  but  a  few 
hundred,  or  even  a  few  thousand,  will  probably  find  it  to 
his  advantage  to  purchase  the  stock  instead  of  growing  it ; 
largely  for  the  reason  that  by  so  doing  he  will  save  at  least 
three  years'  time.  In  some  of  the  states  the  residents  there- 
of can  now  secure  plants  of  the  state's  forestry  department 
at  actual  cost  of  production,  and  printed  instructions  for 
planting  them  will  be  furnished  ;  or,  if  requested,  an  expert 
will  be  sent  to  direct  the  work,  the  applicant  for  such  serv- 
ice defraying  only  traveling  and  other  like  expenses.  At 
least  this  is  true  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  and  should 
be  of  all  other  states.  In  fact  the  state  can  well  afford  to 
furnish  plants  gratis  to  all  who  will  plant  and  obligate 
themselves  to  care  for  them  properly.  Many  of  the  states 
are  furnishing  fish-fry  free  of  all  charges  to  place  in  the 
streams  of  the  state,  and  certainly  trees  are  of  enough  im- 
portance to  be  placed  on  a  parity  with  fish. 


XV 


HOW  TO   CARE  FOR  AND  WHEN  TO   SOW  FOREST 
TREE   SEEDS 

Nature  takes  little  care  of  the  seeds  of  our  important 
timber  trees.  She  practically  sows  them  as  soon  as  they 
mature  and  fall  from  the  tree,  and  their  destination  is  little 
or  no  better  than  chance.  In  so  far  as  the  period  of  sowing 
is  concerned,  we  may,  with  few  exceptions,  follow  her ;  but 
this  is  not  always  convenient  nor  is  it  in  all  cases  advisable. 
Some  tree  seeds  can  be  safely  and  advantageously  stored 
for  a  time  and  the  sowing  delayed.  This  can  be  done  with 
nearly  all  seeds  that  mature  in  the  latter  part  of  summer 
or  in  the  fall,  for  with  these  Nature  does  not  demand  im- 
mediate growth.  But  of  such  as  ripen  in  early  summer,  as 
do  the  Elms  and  soft  Maples,  she  demands  prompt  growth, 
and  such  cannot  be  stored,  but  must  be  promptly  sown  that 
they  may  at  once  begin  life  and  become  strong  enough  to 
endure  the  rigors  of  the  coming  winter.  Such  seeds  cannot, 
after  becoming  ripe,  be  kept  many  days  without  seriously 
impairing  their  vitality ;  but  practically  all  seeds  ripening 
in  the  fall  can,  with  the  right  care,  be  stored  until  the 
following  spring,  and  some  for  a  longer  time,  even  for  three 
years ;  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  seed  of  any  species  that 
is  more  than  one  year  old,  and  it  is  far  better  to  sow  them 
the  spring  following  their  maturity.^ 

^  The  g-erminating-  power  of  seeds  is  not  uniform,  even  when  they  are 
gathered  from  the  same  tree,  at  the  same  time,  and  receive  the  same  treat- 
ment in  the  seed-bed ;  and  those  germinating  soonest  produce  the  strongest 
plants.  Germination  of  coniferous  seeds  may  be  aided  by  soaking  them 
twenty-four  hours  in  water  at  about  130°  F.,  but  soaked  seeds  should  not 
be  sown  in  dry  ground  unless  the  ground  is  immediately  watered  in  some 
way,  for  otherwise  the  dry  soil  will  absorb  the  moisture  in  the  seeds  and 
the  further  progress  of  germination,  which  is  then  undoubtedly  in  an  incipi- 
ent stage,  will  be  fatally  arrested. 


116  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

Seeds  ripening  at  the  close  of  the  growing  season  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes  :  (1)  Those  that  can  be  dried 
without  impairing  their  vitality  ;  (2)  those  that  can  sub- 
mit to  partial  drying  without  very  seriously  affecting  their 
vitality,  although  even  partial  drying  will  injure  them  more 
or  less ;  and  (3)  those  that  are  seriously  and,  with  some 
species,  fatally  injured  by  becoming  at  all  dry.  In  the  first 
class  can  be  placed  the  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  Balsams, 
Larches,  Hemlocks,  Catalpas,  Sycamore,  Locusts,  and 
Birches.  These  may  all  be  dried  without  injury  if  kept  in 
a  cool  place  where  the  atmosphere  is  in  a  normal  condition 
of  humidity,  and  they  will  suffer  little  or  no  deterioration 
for  a  few  months,  but  a  warm  dry  atmosphere  may  do  great 
damage.  While  Nature  sows  all  these  in  the  fall,  it  cannot 
be  truthfully  said  that  a  delay  until  spring  in  sowing  is  in- 
jurious, for  this  delay  and  moderate  drying  seems  to  be 
beneficial  with  some  species  in  fully  perfecting  the  ripening 
process.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the  artificial  care  of  these 
seeds  by  properly  storing  them  is  not  better  than  to  let 
them  lie  on  the  ground  exposed  to  such  conditions  of 
weather  as  may  naturally  come,  for  should  there  be  much 
wet  and  comparatively  warm  weather  in  the  late  fall  and 
early  spring  the  seeds  might  begin  germination.  Should  this 
occur,  as  it  sometimes  does,  they  would  be  destroyed  by 
freezing,  or  decay  from  excessive  moisture,  and  as  these 
conditions  are  not  determinable  it  is  found  that  spring  sow- 
ing is  more  frequently  successful. 

In  the  second  class  are  those  which  can  endure  some  dry- 
ing without  very  serious  consequences,  but  with  these  drying 
is  not  at  all  necessary  and  germination  is  better  without  it. 
These  are  the  Ashes,  Yellow  Poplar,  Cucumber,  Sugar 
Maple,  and  Basswood.  The  seeds  of  these  may  be  stored  in 
a  dry  cool  place,  the  same  as  the  first  class,  but  their  vitality 
is  much  impaired  by  that  process,  and  if  germination  takes 
place  it  wiU  be  slow  and  may  be  delayed  for  a  year  or  more. 
All  of  this  class  of  seeds  have  a  quite  hard  shell,  somewhat 
impervious  to  moisture,  and  instead  of  being  liable  to  in- 


HOW  TO  CARE  FOR  FOREST  TREE  SEEDS   117 

jury  in  consequence  of  being  kept  moist  they  are  actually 
benefited  by  it.  Repeated  experiments  show  that  fall  plant- 
ing of  all  these  is  preferable,  and  that  germination  is  then 
far  greater  than  if  they  are  allowed  to  become  dry.  As  few 
or  none  of  these  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  squirrels, 
mice,  or  other  animals,  there  is  no  inherent  reason  why 
prompt  sowing  may  not  be  followed.  Only  convenience,  or 
other  extraneous  reason,  should  prevent  it.  In  such  a  case, 
however,  the  seeds  may  be  stratified  in  a  box  with  moist 
sand  —  a  layer  of  sand  an  inch  or  so  in  thickness  and  a 
layer  of  seeds  from  one  to  two  inches  thick  according  to 
size  of  seeds,  alternating  as  the  box  is  filled  —  and  placed 
where  they  will  not  dry  out  nor  be  warm  enough  to  induce 
germination  or  decay.  If  the  box  is  placed  in  the  ground  and 
slightly  covered  with  earth,  but  protected  from  water  find- 
ing its  way  into  it,  the  seeds  will  keep  all  right,  as  freezing 
will  not  injure  them,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  bene- 
ficial. 

The  third  class  consists  of  the  Hickories,  Black  Walnut, 
Butternut,  Beech,  Cherry,  Chestnut,  and  the  Oaks.  None 
of  these  should  be  permitted  to  become  at  all  dry.  All  should 
be  planted  as  soon  as  ripe,  or  at  once  stratified  as  indicated 
for  the  second  class,  and  they  should  be  placed  where  they 
will  be  subjected  to  as  much  freezing  as  they  would  be  if 
lying  on  the  ground  in  the  woods.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
remove  the  husk  from  the  walnuts  and  butternuts,  or  the 
pulp  from  the  cherries,  if  planting  is  to  be  done  as  soon  as 
the  seeds  are  ripe,  although  with  the  walnuts  and  butter- 
nuts this,  if  desirable,  may  be  done  without  injury  in  order 
to  reduce  bulk ;  and  with  the  cherries  in  order  to  permit 
sowing  them  with  a  seed  drill.  The  husk  of  the  hickory 
nuts  would  best  be  removed,  if  Nature  has  not  already 
done  it  with  these  as  she  does  with  the  chestnuts  and  beech- 
nuts. All  these  would  best  be  planted  as  soon  as  possible 
after  they  fall  from  the  tree,  if  there  is  no  danger  that 
squirrels  and  other  nut-eating  animals  will  destroy  them, 
although  it  is  claimed  on  very  good  authority  that   fall 


118  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

planting  of  White  Oak  is  not  as  successful  as  when  the 
acorns  have  been  properly  stored  and  the  sowing  done  in 
early  spring.  All  seeds  stratified  in  moist  sand  should  be 
sown  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  conditions  and  soil  will  per- 
mit, for  Nature  has,  by  this  time,  begun  her  work  of  ger- 
mination, and  delay  is  then  dangerous;  nor  should  the  seeds 
then  be  permitted  to  become  at  all  dry.  They  should  not  be 
taken  out  of  the  sand  until  everything  is  in  readiness  for 
sowing  and  they  should  then  be  at  once  placed  in  the  ground. 
If  sown  as  soon  as  they  fall  not  all  tree  seeds  will  germ- 
inate in  the  spring  next  following.  They  largely  do  so,  but 
some  from  the  same  tree  may  require  another  year.  There 
is  evidently  a  sort  of  ripening  then  going  on  for  a  time 
before  the  germ  is  ready  to  burst  into  life,  and  this  ripening 
appears  to  be  hastened  when  seeds  are  stratified  in  moist 
sand,  and  that  feature  should  be  recognized. 


XVI 

TAP-ROOT 

A  TAP-ROOT  is  defined  by  Webster  as  "  the  root  of  a 
plant  which  penetrates  the  earth  directly  downward  to  a 
considerable  depth  without  dividing."  Nearly  all  species 
of  trees  develop  a  tap-root  in  early  life  —  some  in  a  modest 
way,  others  in  a  very  positive  form.  The  roots  seek  food 
and  moisture  and  at  once  penetrate  the  earth  in  search  of 
them.  The  demand  for  food  and  moisture  is'soon  satisfied 
in  some  species  through  throwing  out  lateral  roots,  and 
when  this  occurs  the  one  tending  downward  ceases  to  be  a 
dominant  feature.  Such  trees  are  designated  as  "  shallow- 
rooted."  In  others  the  tap-root  is  persistent  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  all  through  life,  although  lateral  roots  are  de- 
veloped, and  such  trees  are  known  as  "  tap-rooted."  There 
are  a  number  of  broadleaf  trees  that  belong  to  the  tajj-root 
class,  comprising  about  all  whose  seeds  are  inclosed  in  a 
hard  shell,  as  the  Oaks,  Hickories,  Walnuts,  Cherries,  and 
Chestnut,  while  some  of  the  Pines,  notably  the  Longleaf, 
have  a  very  pronounced  tap-root. 

There  are  a  few  species,  notably  Cherry  and  Ash,  that 
will  suffer  the  destruction  of  this  feature  of  their  root  sj's- 
tem  without  serious  results,  but  for  that  operation  to  be 
successful  it  should  take  place  when  the  tree  is  young  — 
best  at  one  year  old,  or  two  years  at  latest.  This  can  be 
done  by  removing  the  plant  from  the  seed-bed  to  the  trans- 
plant nursery,  there  to  remain  until  lateral  roots  are  de- 
veloped, when  it  can  be  transferred  to  the  forest. 

Various  devices  have  been  tried  to  prevent  the  seedling 
from  sending  its  tap-root  downward  so  far  as  to  make  re- 
moval of  the  plant  difficult.  One  of  these  is  to  place  boards, 
stones,  or  brick  six  or  eight  inches  below  the  surface  and 


120  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

directly  underneath  the  seed  to  arrest  the  downward  course 
of  the  root.  Another  is  to  use  an  implement  similar  to  that 
employed  by  nurserymen  when  taking  up  fruit  trees,  which 
consists  of  a  horizontal  knife  run  several  inches  below  the 
surface  and  severing  the  tap-root,  the  depth  of  the  knife 
varying  with  the  character  of  the  root  system  of  the  tree. 
The  seedlings  can  then  be  allowed  to  remain  another  year 
and  throw  out  lateral  roots,  and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  of 
removal  to  the  transplant  nursery ;  but  none  have  proved 
successful  except  at  too  great  cost.  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions, and  with  the  greatest  care,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
species  noted,  successfully  growing  tap-rooted  trees  and 
establishing  them  in  the  forest  rarely  occurs.  Some  practi- 
cally refuse  to  grow  at  all,  and  but  few  of  them  will  grow 
vigorously  for  several  years  after  removal  into  the  forest, 
and  even  in  such  cases  there  is  much  time  lost  at  the  very 
best.  The  only  valid  reason  for  adhering  to  the  practice, 
even  with  the  least  stubborn  ones,  is  to  get  the  plant  far 
enough  advanced  to  withstand  the  encroachment  of  such 
companions  as  may  surround  it  in  early  life  in  its  forest 
home,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  anything  is  gained  in  the 
end.  As  this  peculiarity  of  root  growth  will  be  noted  when 
considering  the  several  species  of  our  important  timber 
trees,  and  suggestions  made  regarding  the  proper  treatment 
when  endeavoring  to  cultivate  such  species  as  possess  them, 
further  reference  to  it  here  is  unnecessary. 


XVII 

WHEN   TO  PLANT  TREES  IN   THE  FOREST 

The  time  ia  which  to  plant  trees  is  somewhat  limited 
and  its  selection  necessarily  largely  depends  upon  conven- 
ience and  conditions.  It  must  take  place  in  the  fall  or  early 
spring,  because  trees  cannot  be  safely  removed  during  the 
growing  season,  which  occurs  during  spring  and  summer, 
and  it  is  impracticable  to  plant  them  in  the  winter  when 
the  ground  is  frozen.  Planting  in  the  fall  can  be  success- 
fully accomplished  with  many  species,  —  especially  with 
the  deciduous  ones,  —  but  unless  it  is  properly  and  care- 
fully done  it  will  not  be  as  successful  as  spring  planting. 
The  coniferous  evergreens  —  the  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  and 
the  like  —  evaporate  water  from  their  leaves  during  winter 
and  thus  make  a  greater  demand  upon  the  mutilated  roots 
for  moisture  than  do  the  deciduous  ones,  and  for  that  rea- 
son fall  planting  of  evergreens  is  not  as  successful  as  with 
deciduous  species.  But  if  care  is  taken  to  place  fine  earth 
in  close  contact  with  all  roots,  leaving  no  open  spaces,  and 
the  tree  is  placed  a  little  deeper  in  the  ground  than  it 
originally  stood,  in  order  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  be 
thrown  out  by  the  frost,  and  the  work  is  done  early  enough 
for  the  ground  to  become  settled  and  firm  before  winter 
sets  in,  then  fall  planting  of  both  evergreens  and  deciduous 
trees,  with  chances  in  favor  of  the  latter,  will  usually  suc- 
ceed. 

It  is  true  that  during  the  winter  some  effort  is  likely  to 
be  put  forth  by  the  transplanted  tree  towards  repairing 
the  injury  that  has  been  done  to  the  roots  when  removed 
from  the  nursery,  providing  the  ground  is  not  frozen  too 
hard ;  but  the  great  danger  is  that  vacant  spaces  are  left 
around  the  roots,  and  if  so  those  exposed  will  be  killed  and 


122  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

the  chances  of  the  tree's  living  will  be  greatly  lessened.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  in  close  contact  with  the 
soil  roots  of  trees  may  be  frozen  very  hard  without  injury 
if  their  relative  positions  are  not  changed  until  both  are 
thawed  out.  But  it  is  at  all  times  necessary  to  protect  roots 
from  injury  which  will  come  to  them  when  naked  and  ex- 
posed to  the  frost.  In  spring  planting  this  danger  is  mainly 
avoided,  and  can  be  entirely  so  if  care  is  taken  to  protect 
the  roots  from  frost  when  the  trees  are  removed  from  the 
nursery  to  the  forest,  as  it  is  seldom  or  never  that  the 
ground  freezes  deep  enough  after  spring  planting  has  taken 
place  to  injure  the  roots,  if  vacant  spaces  have  been  care- 
lessly left,  a  condition  which  should  not  be  tolerated.  All 
in  all,  spring  planting  is  preferable,  but  conditions  may 
make  it  necessary  to  plant  in  the  fall  and  run  the  risk  of 
success. 

It  is  claimed  that  coniferous  evergreens,  such  as  the 
Pines  and  Spruces,  can  be  safely  transplanted  in  the  latter 
part  of  August.  That  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  year's  growth.  If  the  growth  is  completed, 
then  the  removal  at  that  time  can  safely  take  place.  In 
that  case  the  roots  will  have  an  opportunity  to  do  some- 
thing towards  repairing  damages  done  them,  but  unless 
the  growth  has  practically  ceased  success  cannot  follow 
that  procedure. 


XVIII 

SPACING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  FOREST 

In  order  to  secure  an  even  stand  with  all  the  ground 
covered  to  the  best  advantage,  whereby  it  will  produce  the 
greatest  possible  yield,  the  trees  should  be  planted  equidis- 
tant, thus  giving  each  tree  its  due  share  of  uioistui-e,  food, 
and  light.  As  there  must  be  a  large  part  of  the  planted 
stand  removed  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  allow  the  best 
development  of  the  trees  which  are  to  compose  the  mature 
forest,  the  spacing  should  be  such  that  each  one  will,  as 
far  as  practicable,  at  all  times  be  left  its  shai-e  of  ground. 
Absolute  accuracy  is  not  essential,  nor  can  it  always  be  se- 
cured except  at  unnecessary  expense,  as  local  conditions 
may  make  it  difficult ;  but  where  conditions  will  permit  it 
should  be  approximately  reached.  If  practicable  the  most 
satisfactory  spacing  is  reached  by  the  quincunx  form ;  that 
is,  to  set  the  trees  in  each  row  opposite  the  spaces  in  the 
adjacent  rows  ;  but  there  is  little  ground  which  should  be 
devoted  to  tree-planting  where  there  are  not  obstacles  of 
some  sort  which  will  prevent  the  adoption  of  this  or  any 
exact  method.  Where  it  is  practicable  lines  may  be  set  out 
in  some  way  and  the  trees  placed  in  regular  rows  opposite 
each  other,  or  those  in  one  row  opposite  the  space  in  the 
adjoining  row,  so  that  each  will  be  given  its  proper  pro- 
portion of  space,  and  probably  the  result  will  be  nearly  as 
well  one  way  as  the  other.  In  many  places  the  distance  the 
trees  are  to  be  placed  apart  can,  for  all  practicable  pur- 
poses, be  arrived  at  by  stepping.  With  a  little  practice  and 
care  a  man  can  soon  accustom  himself  to  step  any  short 
distance  accurately  enough  to  plant  trees  in  the  forest, 
where  a  few  inches,  one  way  or  the  other,  will  not  matter  ; 
while  on  stony,  stumpy,  or  rough  ground  he  must  select 


124  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

the  best  places  for  the  trees,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  even 
spacing. 

Conditions  may  be  such  that  spacing  should  not  be  alike 
over  a  given  area.  If  the  ground  where  the  trees  are  to  be 
planted  is  uniformly  fertile,  then  the  spacing  should  be  as 
nearly  uniform  as  is  practically  possible,  but  if  any  portion 
is  less  fertile  than  the  rest,  then  the  trees  on  that  portion 
should  be  set  closer  than  elsewhere  ;  for  it  will  there  take 
longer  time  to  secure  the  desired  protection  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground  —  the  coveted  forest  floor  —  owing  to  the 
slower  growth  of  the  trees ;  therefore  closer  planting  is 
necessary. 

Thinning.  Notwithstanding  that  even  spacing  is  desir- 
able, and  may  be  practically  accomplished  at  first,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  maintain  it  during  the  whole  life  of  the 
plantation,  for  no  system  of  distances  can  be  adopted  that 
will  allow  proper  and  timely  thinning  and  leave  the  trees 
equidistant  all  the  time.  There  will  have  to  be  a  compro- 
mise at  some  of  the  thinnings.  Good  sense  and  judgment 
must  direct  in  all  cases.  Thinning  becomes  necessary  when 
the  annual  growth  indicates  the  need  of  it,  and  it  should 
at  no  time  be  done  further  than  to  give  relief  from  over- 
crowding ;  but  there  must  be  crowding  enough  to  compel 
all  the  trees  to  drop  their  lower  limbs.  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  time  to  begin  it,  or  how  far  it  should  be  car- 
ried on,  or  how  frequently  it  should  be  undertaken.  Some- 
thing may  be  said  in  a  general  way,  but  beyond  that  only 
good  judgment  and  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  governing 
tree-growth  can  bring  the  best  results.  It  is  manifest  that 
defective  trees  should  generally  be  removed  in  preference 
to  vigorous  ones,  but  in  the  absence  of  better  ones  they 
may  serve  as  "  nurse  trees,"  and  if  so  should  be  retained 
while  useful  for  that  purpose.  It  may  be  necessary  to  be- 
gin thinning  in  ten  or  fifteen  years  from  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, or  even  earlier  with  some,  if  closely  planted ;  or  if  far 
apart,  not  under  twenty  years,  or  even  longer.  The  author 
has  in  mind  a  case  where  White  Pine  had  been  planted 


SPACING  THE  TREES  IN  THE  FOREST  125 

three  feet  apart,  and  at  ten  years  from  setting  sorely  needed 
thinning  ;  while  on  the  same  estate  others  had  been  set  six- 
teen feet  apart,  and  at  twenty  years  most  of  their  lower 
limbs  were  still  alive,  and  thinning  would  do  little  good, 
in  fact  would  be  detrimental.  Then,  some  species  require 
less  thinning  than  others  at  a  given  date  from  planting,  and 
only  from  a  knowledge  of  actual  conditions  and  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  premises  can  any  definite  conclusion  be  drawn. 
When  one  is  familiar  with  the  life-history  of  a  tree  and 
the  laws  which  govern  tree-growth  there  is  little  danger  of 
going  astray. 


XIX 

WILL  PLANTING  FORESTS  EVER  BECOME 
PROFITABLE  ? 

It  matters  little  what  facts  may  be  set  forth  or  what 
arguments  may  be  adduced  to  show  the  necessity  for  plant- 
ing forests,  nor  does  it  signify  how  strong  appeals  may  be 
made  to  patriotic  and  altruistic  sentiment,  tree-planting  in 
this  country  will  not  be  engaged  in  to  any  great  extent  un- 
less it  can  be  put  on  a  paying  basis  and  become  a  profit- 
able, self-sustaining  enterprise.  The  feature  uppermost  in 
the  mind  of  any  one  who  contemplates  engaging  in  it  is, 
Will  it  pay?  Can  any  one  afford  to  invest  money  and  give 
time  and  labor  to  growing  trees  for  economic  purposes  ? 
However  anxious  one  may  be  to  see  our  forests  restored, 
or  however  advantageous  it  may  be  to  the  country  at  large 
to  have  it  done,  a  candid,  truthful  answer  must  be  that,  in 
and  of  itself,  and  based  wholly  on  financial  considerations, 
it  will  not  pay  if  the  present  price  for  labor  and  the  pre- 
sent rates  of  interest  and  taxes  are  to  be  maintained,  and 
no  higher  prices  for  forest  products  are  to  prevail  when 
the  trees  are  fit  to  harvest. 

There  are  certain  fixed  charges  which  must  go  with  tree- 
planting  from  the  day  the  seeds  are  sown  until  the  trees 
can  be  profitably  harvested ;  and  for  the  fast-growing  ones 
this  period  may  be  set  down  as  not  less  than  sixty  years. 
These  charges  are  :  compound  interest  on  the  money  in- 
vested in  land  and  planting,  care  and  labor  in  management, 
and  annual  taxes  ;  and  when  these  are  summed  up,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  total  cost  will  at  least  be  equal,  and  prob- 
ably will  exceed,  the  price  for  which  that  character  of 
lumber  and  other  forest  products  can  now  be  purchased  in 
market. 


WILL  PLANTING  FORESTS  BECOME  PROFITABLE  ?    127 

If  we  cannot,  at  present  prices,  aiford  to  engage  in  tree- 
planting,  we  are  naturally  led  to  inquire  whether  we  can 
reasonably  anticipate  that  any  one  or  all  the  important 
features  mentioned  will  be  changed  in  the  future.  While  a 
positive  and  definite  answer  to  this  query  would  be  more  or 
less  conjectural,  there  are  certain  things  which,  when  well 
understood,  will  lead  to  such  a  comprehension  of  the  case 
as  will  greatly  aid  in  forming  a  reasonably  accurate  opinion ; 
and  it  will  be  well  to  consider  them  seriously,  for,  unless  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  cost  of  production  will  not  be  greater 
than  now,  and  that  prices  for  forest  products  will  be  in- 
creased by  the  time  they  can  be  grown,  there  need  be  no 
expectation  that  tree-planting  will  be  undertaken  as  a  finan- 
cial proposition.  If  the  future  cost  of  forest  products  will 
be  the  same,  or  greater,  and  the  price  for  these  be  the 
same,  or  less,  than  now,  the  only  one,  except  the  state,  who 
will  be  likely  to  engage  in  tree-planting  is  the  farmer  who, 
in  the  near  future,  must  begin  to  grow  his  fuel,  posts,  and 
other  necessary  wood  for  his  farm. 

In  reckoning  the  future  cost  of  forest  products  it  will  be 
safe  to  assume  that  interest  on  the  money  invested  will  not 
be  greater  —  more  likely  less  —  than  now,  that  the  rate  of 
taxation  will  be  substantially  the  same,  and  that  the  only 
probable  difference  in  cost  will  be  that  for  labor.  Of  this 
latter  feature  we  can  judge  only  from  the  experience  of 
other  countries,  which  is  that  the  denser  the  population 
the  lower  is  the  rate  of  wages  for  common  laborers.  From 
this  fact  it  will  be  safe  to  conclude  that  for  the  next  fifty 
to  seventy-five  years  the  rate  of  wages  in  this  country  will 
be  little  if  any  higher  than  now,  and  possibly  lower.  There- 
fore, all  things  considered,  it  may  be  reasonably  concluded 
that  the  cost  of  forest  products  fifty  to  seventy-five  years 
hence  will  be  substantially  the  same  as  at  present. 

It  remains,  then,  to  detei-mine,  as  far  as  possible,  whether 
the  price  of  forest  products  will,  in  the  future,  be  less,  or 
the  same,  or  more  than  now.  Two  important  features  are 
always  connected  with  —  and  in  fact  control  —  the  price  of 


128  IMPORTANT  TIMBER  TREES 

necessary  articles  in  market.  These  are  demand  and  sup- 
ply. This  is  so  well  understood  that  no  demonstration  of 
its  truth  is  needed.  What,  then,  will  be  the  probable  de- 
mand for  forest  products  fifty  to  seventy-five  years  from 
now  ?  Is  it  likely  to  be  less,  the  same,  or  greater  than  now  ? 
It  is  hardly  conceivable  that  it  will  be  less,  or  even  the 
same,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  it  will  be  greater,  for 
there  is  room  in  our  vast  domain  for  a  large  increase  of 
population,  and  statistics  show  that  our  population  is  now 
more  than  five  times  greater  than  it  was  seventy  years  ago. 
Of  course  it  must  not  be  claimed  that  such  a  rate  of  in- 
crease will  continue  for  long  in  the  future ;  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly within  the  bounds  of  reasonable  probability  to  assume 
that  our  population  will,  in  seventy-five  years,  be  nearly 
twice  what  it  now  is.  This  would  bring  a  greatly  increased 
demand  for  forest  products,  even  if  the  amount  consumed 
per  capita  should  be  lessened  by  one  third,  which  is  hardly 
probable.  From  this  it  will  be  safe  to  conclude  that  there 
will  be  an  increase  of  demand  here  at  home,  and  under  no 
conceivable  conditions  or  circumstances  can  we  expect  that 
the  demand  will  lessen  in  foreign  countries  so  that  we  can 
draw  a  supply  from  them,  for  it  will  naturally  increase 
there  too  ;  and  that  increase  of  demand  will  assuredly  cause 
an  increase  in  price  unless  the  supply  is  sufficient  to  meet  it. 
If  the  demand  is  to  be  greater,  will  the  supply  be  ample? 
With  every  European  country,  except  Norway  and  Russia, 
consuming  more  than  their  forests  produce,  with  only  India 
and  Japan,  in  Asiatic  countries,  having  an  ample  supply, 
and  in  North  America  only  Canada  possessing  more  than 
its  own  needs  demand,  —  and  the  latter  compelled  to  give 
the  mother  country  any  surplus  she  may  possess,  —  and 
with  our  own  country  consuming  her  forest  products  more 
than  three  times  faster  than  they  grow,  what  right  have  we 
to  conclude  that  the  supply  will,  in  the  future,  equal  the 
demand  ?  The  awful  fact  is,  that  the  whole  civilized  world 
is  confronted  with  a  disastrous  timber  famine  in  the  near 
future. 


WILL  PLANTING  FORESTS  BECOME  PROFITABLE?    129 

Present  prices  for  forest  products  should  be  no  criterion 
for  the  future.  It  would  be  fair  to  insist  that  they  will  in- 
crease in  years  to  come  just  as  they  have  in  the  past,  but 
that  may  be  set  aside  as  having  no  particular  significance 
as  to  future  prices  unless  resting  upon  conditions  which 
must  exist  in  the  future ;  and  there  will  inevitably  be  con- 
ditions which  cannot  be  ignored.  When  the  forests  of  this 
country  become  exhausted,  even  to  the  state  that  European 
forests  now  are  in,  the  price  of  forest  products  will  then  de- 
pend upon  the  cost  of  production  —  the  cost  of  growing 
trees  —  just  the  same  as  for  any  other  product  of  the  soil. 
If  any  one  grows  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  hay,  or  any  other 
farm  crop,  the  consumer  must  pay  the  cost  of  production, 
plus  a  profit,  and  it  cannot  be  otherwise  here  when  the  virgin 
forests  which  cost  nothing  to  grow  are  exhausted. 

Logically  the  cost  of  growing  trees  for  lumber  should 
govern  present  prices,  now  that  virgin  forests  are  nearly  ex- 
tinct, but  as  the  forests  of  the  past  cost  nothing  to  produce 
them,  no  additional  price  has  been  added  to  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture, other  than  a  small  amount  which  has  been  denomin- 
ated stumpage,  and  the  profit  which  the  manufacturer  and 
dealer  have  been  able  to  secure.  The  superabundance  of 
forests  has  prevented  much  increase  of  cost,  but  when  they 
are  gone,  the  cost  of  production  will  assuredly  control. 
And  that  period  will  certainly  be  reached  by  the  time  new 
forests  can  be  grown.  Therefore,  it  is  no  unreasonable 
conclusion  that  a  forest  planted  now  or  in  the  future  will 
be  a  profitable  financial  enterprise.  They  are  profitable  in 
Europe  under  less  favorable  conditions  than  will  surely 
exist  here  in  seventy-five  years  from  now.  The  price  there 
is  now,  to  a  certain  extent,  controlled  by  importations 
from  other  countries.  When  such  importations  cease,  as 
they  will  in  time,  the  price  in  Europe  must  advance ;  and 
so  it  will  here  when  the  present  forests  are  exhausted. 
After  that  the  ruling  price  must  be  the  cost  of  production 
with  profit  added. 


PART  n 


THE  PINES 

From  the  earliest  knowledge  of  American  forests  the 
several  species  of  Pine  have  held  first  place  in  the  estima- 
tion of  lumber  manufacturers,  dealers,  woodworkers,  con- 
sumers, and  the  general  public.  No  other  lumber-producing 
trees  have  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  economic  and 
industrial  advancement  of  this  country.  Until  recently  there 
has  been  more  pine  lumber  annually  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  than  of  all  other  kinds  combined ;  and  even 
now,  after  our  pine  forests  have  been  greatly  reduced  in 
area  and  productiveness,  the  amount  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  in  1908  was  forty-eight  per  cent  of  the  total 
cut.i 

All  Pines  are  not  alike  valuable.  Out  of  thirty-seven 
species  indigenous  to  the  United  States  not  one  half  of  that 
number  can  be  deemed  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify 
any  attempt  at  cultivation.  Keally  but  few  of  them  are  of 
such  economic  character  as  to  warrant  it.  They  all  belong 
to  the  botanical  class  known  as  "  conifers,"  or  cone-bear- 
ing trees,  the  cone  being  composed  of  a  woody  stem  covered 
with  scales  that  overlap  each  other,  inclosing  the  seeds  at 
the  base  of  each  scale,  the  fruit  of  all  of  them  requiring 
two  years  to  mature.  Another  distinctive  feature  is  that 
their  leaves  are  in  the  form  of  needles,  clustered  and  held 
together  by  a  sheath  and  are  never  shed  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  —  sometimes  not  under  three  years,  —  and  hence 
are  called  "evergreens."  In  all  but  one  species  the  leaves 
are  in  clusters  in  the  sheath,  ranging  from  two  to  five  in 
each;  the  exception  being  the  "Nut"  or  "  Pinyon  "  Pine 
(^Pinus  monophylla)  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  which  has  a  single 
leaf.  It  is  of  no  value  as  a  timber  tree. 

A  correct  distinction  would  place  our  commercial  Pines 
1  Forest  Products  of  the  United  States,  1908,  No.  10,  Bureau  of  the  Census. 


134  THE   PINES 

in  two  classes,  Soft  Pines  and  Hard  Pines.  There  is  a  dif- 
ference not  only  in  the  character  of  the  wood,  but  in  the 
foliage,  bark,  and  general  appearance.  Nearly  all  the  Pines 
have  more  or  less  of  a  sticky,  limpid,  clear  substance  in  the 
sapwood  and  live  bark,  known  as  crude  turpentine.  There 
is  less  of  this  in  the  Soft  than  in  the  Hard  Pines,  and  in 
all  the  amount  varies  with  the  species.  As  the  sapwood 
changes  to  heartwood  a  large  part  of  the  volatile  portion 
of  the  crude  turpentine  disappears  from  such  wood,  leaving 
in  the  heartwood  what  is  known  as  resin. ^  It  is  the  pre- 
sence of  a  comparatively  large  amount  of  this  resin  that  gives 
a  distinctive  character  to  the  Hard  Pines.  It  causes  the  heart- 
wood  to  take  on  a  darker  color,  adds  to  its  weight  and 
hardness,  —  but  this  latter  feature  makes  it  more  difficult 
to  work  yet  better  able  to  endure  wear  and  abrasion,  —  and 
enables  the  wood  to  resist  decay  more  successfully,  when 
exposed.  There  is  also  a  more  marked  distinction  between 
spring  and  summer  wood  in  the  Hard  than  in  the  Soft  Pine 
class.  There  is  some  resin  and  turpentine  in  the  Soft  Pines, 
but  much  less  than  in  the  others. 

The  lumber  trade  has  adopted  a  different  classification 
and  both  manufacturers  and  dealers  now  classify  pine  lum- 
ber as  "  White  Pine  "  and  "  Yellow  Pine."  So  far  as  char- 
acter and  quality  of  the  wood  in  Soft  and  White  Pine  are 
concerned,  the  terms  may  well  be  considered  synonymous. 
They  include  only  what  are  known  as  Eastern  White  Pine 
(^Pinus  strohus)  ;  Western  White  Pine  (^Pinus  monti- 
cola)  ;  and  Sugar  Pine  (^Pinus  lamhertiana).  There  is  so 
close  a  resemblance  in  the  character  of  the  lumber  cut  from 
all  of  these  species  that  no  serious  wrong  will  be  inflicted 
upon  the  consumer  should  either  be  given  him.  It  is  not  so, 
however,  with  the  Yellow  Pine  class.  Under  that  name  will 
be  found  Longleaf  Pine  {Pinus  palustris)  ;  Cuban  Pine 

1  As  commercially  known  "  resin  "  is  the  solid  portion  left  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  the  crude  turpentine  which  fills  the  cells  and  pores  of  the  sap- 
wood  and  live  bark  of  the  several  species  of  Hard  Pines,  and  which  runs  out 
when  an  incision  is  made  therein.  The  other  product  is  "  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine," and  the  two  constitute  the  well-kuowu  "  naval  stores." 


WHITE   PINE  135 

(^Pinus  heterophylla) ;  Shortleaf  Pine  (^Pinus  echinata, 
quite  frequently  called  North  Carolina  Pine)  ;  Loblolly 
Pine  (Pinus  toBcla,  sometimes  called  Oldfield  Pine)  ;  Pitch 
Pine  (^Pinus  rigidd)  ;  Western  Yellow  Pine  (^Pinus  pon- 
derosa)  ;  Lodgepole  Pine  (^Pinus  murrayana)  ;  and  Ked 
Pine  (^Pinus  resinosa^  largely  called  Norway  Pine).  To 
claim  that  lumber  cut  from  each  of  these  species  is  alike 
in  value  is  to  claim  what  every  one  familiar  with  all  of  it 
knows  cannot  be  truthfully  admitted.  There  is  certainly  a 
marked  difference  and  one  which  will  be  pointed  out  when 
separately  discussing  the  species.  Professor  Charles  S. 
Sargent  ^  classifies  the  Pines  as  "  Soft  Pines  "  and  "  Pitch 
Pines,"  which  is  far  better  than  the  lumber-trade  classifica- 
tion, for  it  gives  the  consumer  a  fair  idea  of  what  he  is  get- 
ting. Each  species  should  be  designated  by  its  true  name 
and  then  no  one  will  be  wronged. 

White  Pine  :   Pinus   strobus 

Fortunately  this  tree  is  not  burdened  with  numerous 
local  names.  It  is  called  White  Pine  in  every  state  of  our 
Union  except  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  In  North 
Carolina  it  is  known  as  Northern  Pine  and  in  Tennessee  as 
Spruce  Pine.  All  things  considered,  it  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  list  for  general  usefulness  as  a  timber  tree,  not 
only  for  the  character  and  quality  of  the  lumber  it  yields, 
but  because  it  can  be  easily  and  quickly  grown  by  artificial 
planting  or  seed-sowing.  It  is  indigenous  to  America,  but 
it  is  grown  in  Europe  and  is  there  known  as  Weymouth 
Pine,  so  named  for  Lord  Weymouth,  who  introduced  it 
into  England  soon  after  the  English  colonies  were  es- 
tablished in  America. 

A  line  bounding  its  natural  range  runs  from  eastern  Maine 
southward  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  mouth  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  thence  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  to  northern  Georgia,  thence  along  the 
*  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America. 


136  THE  PINES 

western  slope  of  those  mountains  to  West  Virginia,  from 
there  in  a  northwest  course  across  southern  Ohio,  central 
Indiana,  and  Iowa  to  the  western  line  of  Minnesota  up  to 
the  Canadian  line,  and  from  there  along  the  northern  bor- 
der of  the  United  States  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
There  are  some  outlying  tracts  not  included  within  these 
lines  in  which  it  grows  and  also  some  localities  included 
where  there  is  none  to  be  found.  In  a  general  way,  however, 
the  territory  embraced  in  the  boundaries  given  may  be 
considered  as  covering  the  original  White  Pine  region. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  its  botanical  range  is  greater 
than  noted,  and  that  its  area  can  be  considerably  increased. 
It  thrives  in  England,  France,  and  the  German  Empire. 
It  does  not  grow  equally  well,  however,  in  all  sections  of 
our  country  in  which  it  is  found,  yet  it  will  grow  in  a  greater 
diversity  of  soils  and  situations  than  any  other  valuable 
timber  tree.  Its  best  development  has  been  found  in  Maine, 
southern  New  York,  central  and  northern  Pennsylvania, 
northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  South  of 
Pennsylvania,  Central  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  it  has  been 
neither  as  abundant  nor  as  large  and  valuable,  but,  for  all 
that,  it  is  well  worthy  of  cultivation  there.  While  it  grows 
wonderfully  rapidly  in  early  life  on  the  southern  Appala- 
chian Mountains,  it  loses  its  vigor  in  middle  life  and  does 
not  reach  the  size  it  does  farther  north.  Besides  this,  the 
wood  frequently  becomes  red  in  the  heart  of  the  older 
trees  and  is  not  so  easily  worked.  It  is  seldom  found  grow- 
ing below  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  in  its  extreme 
southern  range. 

It  flourishes  best  in  fertile,  well-drained  soils  where  its 
roots  can  reach  a  full  supply  of  food  and  moisture,  but  it 
will  grow  remarkably  well  oh  dry  sandy  soils  and  gravelly 
hillsides.  Anywhere  in  its  natural  range,  except  where  very 
wet  or  where  exposed  to  severe  winds  on  high  ridges  and 
mountain-sides,  it  may  be  depended  upon  to  grow  with 
promise  of  good  results.  It  will  grow  even  in  swamps 
and  on  sand  hills,  but  its  growth  there  is  slow  and  uncer- 


WHITE  PINE  137 

tain.  When  in  favorable  situations  it  attains  an  age  of 
three  hundred  or  more  years,  and  grows  to  a  height  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  five  feet.  Gi'eater 
heights  and  diameters  are  recorded,  but  they  are  rare.  In 
the  average  forest  it  has  not  often  been  found  over  three 
feet  in  diameter  or  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
feet  high.  When  grown  closely  surrounded  in  its  early  life 
by  trees  of  its  own  or  other  species  it  will  be  tall  and 
straight,  with  little  taper  of  stem,  and  clean  of  limbs  for 
fifty,  sixty,  seventy  feet,  or  even  more,  from  the  ground. 
It  was  from  such  trees  that  the  "  panel  "  boards  and  planks 
of  old-time  lumbering  days  were  cut,  and  from  such  came 
the  tall  masts  —  some  of  them  one  hundred  and  ten  feet 
high  —  that  held  aloft  the  sails  of  many  a  gallant  ship. 

Whoever  has  once  seen  the  soft,  flexible,  dark  green 
leaves  of  the  White  Pine  will  never  forget  them.  They  are 
from  three  to  five  inches  long,  encased  in  a  sheath  at  the 
base,  invariably  five  in  number,  and  when  all  are  pressed 
together  form  a  cylinder,  each  leaf  occupying  one  fifth  of 
the  space  inclosed  by  the  sheath.  They  fall  in  early  autumn 
of  their  second  season. 

The  limbs  have  heartwood  and  sapwood  the  same  as  the 
stem ;  the  heartwood  of  those  next  to  the  stem  is  more 
highly  charged  with  resin  than  any  other  part  of  the  tree, 
and  if  the  limbs  are  permitted  to  grow  to  any  considerable 
size  they  will  not  drop  off,  if  they  die,  as  the  resin  prevents 
their  decay;  such  limbs  cause  the  objectionable  black  and 
loose  knots  in  the  lumber.  ^  Close  planting  is  the  only 
remedy  for  this.  Early  shade  causes  the  limbs  to  die  before 

^  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  limbs  of  a  close  stand  of  White  Pine  will 
not  drop  o£E  as  quickly  in  some  sections  of  the  country  as  in  others.  This  is 
notably  so  from  central  Pennsylvania  southward.  The  reason  for  this  may 
be  that  in  the  warmer  regions  there  is  more  resin  in  the  limbs  and,  hence, 
they  do  not  decay  as  rapidly.  The  claim  that  White  Pine  will  clean  itself 
more  satisfactorily  when  planted  with  other  species  is  not  necessarily  estab- 
lished. While  it  cleans  itself  well  there,  the  fact  remains  that  it  will  do  so 
when  in  a  pure  stand,  if  planted  close  enough.  In  each  case  the  result  is  de- 
termined by  the  amount  of  shade  in  early  life.  The  limbs  should  be  killed 
when  small,  and  before  the  resinous  heartwood  in  them  is  large. 


138  THE  PINES 

there  is  enough  resin  in  the  heartwood  to  prevent  their  fall- 
ing off  as  soon  as  the  sapwood  in  them  decays.  Dense 
shading  of  the  lower  limbs  must  begin  in  early  life  and  be 
kept  up  until  a  satisfactory  height  of  clean  stem  is  secured. 

Lumber  cut  from  trees  grown  in  the  open,  or  not  suffi- 
ciently crowded  in  early  life,  is  much  less  valuable  than  that 
from  trees  that  were  properly  shaded  and,  consequently, 
had  dropped  their  lower  limbs,  thus  permitting  wood  to 
grow  on  the  stem  free  from  knots.  Open-grown  trees  are 
full  of  large  knots  and  have  a  large  proportion  of  sapwood. 
Besides,  the  heartwood  of  such  is  very  soft,  weak,  and  brit- 
tle, a  condition  which  has  led  to  a  widespread  belief  that 
second-growth  White  Pine  can  never  furnish  lumber  that 
can  take  the  place  of  that  found  in  our  virgin  forests,  a 
mistake  that  may  take  a  long  time  to  correct  in  the  minds 
of  the  consumer  and  woodworker.  When  crowded  in  early 
life  the  annual  layers  will  not  be  so  thick  as  when  grown 
in  the  open  and  the  character  of  the  wood  will  be  materi- 
ally different  in  texture  and  strength.  Age,  however,  seems 
to  have  something  to  do  with  the  character  of  White  Pine 
lumber.  Probably  some  kind  of  chemical  agency  is  at  work 
modifying  the  heartwood  after  it  ceases  to  perform  any 
function  towards  supporting  the  life  of  the  tree.  No  matter 
what  the  cause  for  any  change  may  be,  if  it  occurs,  close 
planting  and  judicious  thinning  will  unquestionably  pro- 
duce good  lumber,  while  neglect  of  these  will  assuredl}'^  end 
in  failure.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  trees  not  more  than  five 
or  six  inches  in  diameter  breast  high,  free  from  limbs  for 
thirty,  forty,  or  even  more  feet,  in  a  naturally  closely 
planted  grove  of  White  Pines,  thus  laying  the  foundation 
for  clear  lumber ;  and  whether  natural  seeding  or  artificial 
planting  prevails,  the  result  should  be  the  production  of 
such  trees  if  success  is  to  crown  the  efforts  put  forth. 

After  the  first  few  years  of  its  life  White  Pine  is  a  rapid 
grower.  Its  annual  rings,  however,  show  a  gradual  and 
constant  decrease  in  thickness  as  age  creeps  on.  This  does 
not  necessarily  imj^ly  that  less  wood  is  formed  annually, 


WHITE   PINE  139 

for  the  increased  diameter  of  the  tree  gives  a  greater  area 
on  which  it  is  to  be  deposited  and  the  accretion  must  cover 
more  surface.  The  total  amount  of  annual  accretion  in- 
creases quite  regularly  until  the  tree  reaches  the  age  of 
seventy-five  or  eighty  years,  and  sometimes  more,  and  then 
the  amount  of  wood  annually  laid  on  appears  to  be  quite 
uniform  until  an  age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  or 
one  hundred  and  fifty  yeai's  has  been  reached,  when  it  be- 
gins to  lessen,  and  continues  to  do  so  from  that  time  on. 
This  conclusion  has  been  reached  by  a  careful  and  patient 
examination  of  the  annual  rings  of  a  large  number  of  forest 
trees  which  were  being  cut  for  lumber,  and  in  widely  dif- 
ferent regions. 

The  wood  of  the  White  Pine  is  soft,  not  strong,  straight- 
and  fine-grained,  moderately  durable,  light,  shrinks  but 
moderately,  and  does  not  warp  or  split  in  seasoning  or 
when  a  nail  is  driven  into  it  close  to  the  end.  It  is  easily 
worked  and  takes  glue  and  paint  well.  If  varnished  with- 
out stain  its  light,  buff-colored  heartwood  gradually  turns 
a  rich  transparent  brown,  closely  resembling  mahogany  in 
color,  with  a  rich  satiny  lustre.  No  wood,  unless  it  is  oak, 
has  been  so  abused  with  stains  and  paint  as  White  Pine 
when  used  for  interior  finish.  Few  woods  can  equal  it  in 
richness  of  color  and  texture  when  properly  treated  and 
time  given  it.  For  a  long  time  it  was  the  only  softwood 
that  lumbermen  and  consumers  of  the  Northern  States 
would  consider  of  any  value.  It  was  used  for  a  wide  range 
of  purposes,  —  probably  none  ever  used  for  so  many, — 
and  it  would  still  be  so  used  to-day  did  not  its  scarcity  and 
high  price  prevent.  To  enumerate  all  the  uses  it  can  be  put 
to  would  be  to  name  about  everything  wood  is  used  for 
except  where  great  durability  when  exposed  to  the  soil  is 
demanded,  or  where  strength,  hardness,  and  toughness  are 
exacted. 

The  sapwood  is  slightly  lighter  in  color  than  the  heart- 
wood  and  does  not  darken  so  much  with  age.  It  is  quite 
highly  charged  with  turpentine.  The  change  which  occurs 


140  THE  PINES 

when  sapwood  is  converted  into  heartwood  eliminates,  in 
some  way,  much  of  the  volatile  portion  of  the  turpentine 
with  which  it  was  stored  and  the  heartwood  is  left  com- 
paratively free  from  it.  There  is  little  difference  between 
spring  and  summer  wood  in  color  or  hardness,  and  this 
makes  it  easy  to  work.  The  medullary  rays  are  small,  num- 
erous but  not  conspicuous. 

Some  virgin  White  Pine  produces  wood  softer  than  the 
average,  and  that  fact  has  led  to  the  belief  by  some  that 
there  are  several  varieties  of  that  tree.  This  may  be  true, 
as  it  is  well  known  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  wood, 
and  old  lumbermen  and  woodworkers  agree  that  "cork 
pine  "  or  "pumpkin  pine  "  is  quite  superior  in  quality  to 
any  other.  Still,  this  difference  may  come  about  through 
age  or  surroundings.  Such  wood  is  usually,  but  not  always, 
found  in  trees  that  stand  apart  from  their  kind  —  frequently 
among  hardwoods  —  and  are  old  and  near  the  end  of  life. 
The  matter  is  well  worth  investigating,  for  there  is  occa- 
sionally a  marked  difference  in  the  character  of  the  wood. 

Unfortunately  for  natural  reproduction  the  tree  does  not 
produce  seed  in  early  life.  While  it  occasionally  bears 
cones  before  the  age  of  twenty  years,  fertile  seeds  will  sel- 
dom be  found  in  them  ;  and  only  when  growing  in  the  open 
can  it  be  depended  upon  to  bear  seed  before  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  or  forty  years.  At  the  best,  it  is  not  a  prolific  or  a  reg- 
ular seed-bearing  tree.  Only  once  in  five  or  six  years  can  it 
be  relied  upon  to  produce  a  crop.  A  tree  blossoming  in  the 
spring  of  one  year  does  not  perfect  its  seed  until  late  in  the 
summer  of  the  succeeding  one.  The  cones  do  not  attain  a 
growth  of  over  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length  and  five 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  until  the  spring  of  the 
second  year.  They  then  begin  to  grow  very  rapidly  and  by 
the  first  of  August  will  reach  full  size,  which  runs  from  five 
to  seven  inches  in  length  —  sometimes  eight  inches  —  and 
from  seven  sixteenths  to  one  and  one  eighth  inches  in  dia- 
meter at  the  largest  part.  They  are  of  a  bronze  green  in 
color  until  they  open,  and  they  then  turn  to  a  bright  brown. 


WHITE  PINE  141 

As  soon  as  the  scales  open  the  seeds  drop  out,  but  the  cone 
remains  on  the  tree  until  the  next  spring.  There  are  two 
seeds  at  the  base  of  each  scale,  but  those  at  the  ends  of  the 
cone  are  not  always  fertile.  The  seed  is  about  the  size,  and 
quite  the  same  color,  of  an  apple  seed,  and  to  it  is  attached 
a  thin  brown  wing  about  one  fourth  inch  wide  and  from 
three  fourths  to  one  inch  long.  This  wing  is  so  formed  that 
when  the  seed  falls  from  the  cone  a  gyrating  motion  is  set 
up,  causing  it  to  fall  slowly,  and  giving  the  wind  a  good 
opportunity  to  carry  it  quite  a  distance.  Instances  can  be 
shown  where  the  wind  has  carried  the  seeds  a  full  half-mile. 
The  scales  usually  open  about  the  last  week  in  August 
or  the  first  week  of  September,  varying  according  to  the 
weather  and  latitude.  If  dry  they  open  early,  and  if  wet 
they  may  not  for  a  week  or  ten  days  later.  If  seeds  are  to 
be  gathered  the  cones  must  be  secured  before  the  scales 
open,  for  then  the  seeds  drop  out.  As  soon  as  collected  the 
cones  must  be  placed  where  they  will  dry  readily.  They 
should  be  spread  out  thin,  and  in  no  case  be  allowed  to 
heat  or  mould,  for  if  either  occurs  the  vitality  of  the  seeds 
is  greatly  lessened  if  not  totally  destroyed.  The  cones  must 
be  placed  where  the  sun  can  shine  on  them  or  in  any  dry 
place  where  neither  birds,  squirrels,  nor  mice  can  get  at 
them.  If  a  room  can  be  provided  where  a  temperature  of 
seventy-five  degrees  can  be  kept  up,  with  good  ventilation, 
the  opening  of  the  scales  will  be  greatly  hastened.  If  laid 
on  a  wire  screen  to  a  depth  of  three  inches,  and  frequently 
stirred,  nearly  all  the  seeds  will  drop  out ;  but  if  they  do 
not,  the  cones  may  be  put  into  a  common  grain  bag  and  a 
few  vigorous  blows  given  on  some  hard  object,  when  sub- 
stantially all  will  be  freed.  The  wings  must  then  be  rubbed 
off  and  all  dirt  cleaned  out  and  the  seeds  put  in  a  bag 
and  hung  up  in  a  cool,  dry  place  until  planting-time.  They 
should  be  thoroughly  dry  before  they  are  put  away.  Where 
a  large  number  of  cones  are  to  be  cared  for,  a  room  with 
artificial  heat  should  be  provided,  and  the  cones  placed  on 
screens  and  racks  and  frequently  stirred.  Ample  ventila- 


142  THE  PINES 

tion  should  be  maintained  while  the  cones  are  being  dried. 
White  Pine  is  a  slow  grower  the  first  few  years  of  its  life. 
It  seldom  exceeds  two  inches  in  height  the  first  year,  and 
generally  grows  not  more  than  one  inch.  By  the  end  of  the 
third  year  a  height  of  four  to  six  inches  may  have  been 
reached.  An  increase  of  four  or  five  inches  may  occur  the 
fourth  year,  and  the  fifth  should  show  a  total  height  of 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  In  the  sixth  year  it  may  add  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches,  and  after  that  a  growth  of  two  feet  a 
year  may  occur  until  the  tree  is  thirty  or  forty  years  old, 
providing  it  has  not  been  crowded  by  other  trees.  It  throws 
out  a  whorl  of  limbs  —  most  generally  five  —  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  year's  growth  after  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  of 
its  age,  and  until  the  tree  attains  a  height  of  forty  to  fifty 
feet  —  if  close-grown — these  whorls  of  limbs  give  an  ap- 
proximate indication  of  the  tree's  age,  each  whorl  repre- 
senting a  year.  On  an  average  the  tree  will  have  attained 
a  height  of  five  feet  in  seven  years.  The  buds  for  these 
whorls  —  called  winter  buds  —  can  be  seen  at  the  end  of 
each  season's  growth.  There  is  seldom  a  bud  formed  on  the 
stem  between  these  whorls. 

The  root  system  of  the  tree  accommodates  itself  to  local 
situations.  In  ground  with  a  clay  subsoil  its  roots  will  run 
shallow,  but  in  deep,  fertile  ground,  not  too  moist,  they  go 
down  deep.  Frequently  on  alluvial  deposit,  where  the  water- 
bearing stratum  is  low  down,  stumps  pulled  out  bring 
ground  from  a  depth  of  five  or  more  feet.  Its  demand  for 
mineral  food  is  very  light,  and  when  opportunity  is  offered, 
it  seeks  what  little  it  requires  far  below  the  surface. 

White  Pine  tolerates  other  species  of  trees  for  its  near 
neighbors.  It  grows  equally  well  with  such  as  do  not  make 
a  more  rapid  height  growth  as  with  its  own  hind.  In  trans- 
planting it  into  the  forest  it  might  be  well  to  mingle  with 
it  other  species  of  trees  possessing  the  same  rapidity  of 
growth  ;  but  this  would  seem  advisable  only  for  the  reason 
that  attacks  of  fungus  diseases  and  insects  are  not  generally 
as  severe  in  mixed  stands. 


WESTERN  WHITE  PINE  143 

The  distance  apart  that  the  young  trees  should  be  set 
in  the  forest  depends  upon  the  location  and  character  of 
the  soil.  It  is  at  all  times  desirable  to  secure  a  covering 
for  the  forest  floor  as  soon  as  possible,  and  if  the  ground 
is  not  fertile,  closer  planting  than  would  be  suitable  where 
all  things  are  favorable  may  be  advisable.  The  distance 
may  range  from  four  to  six  feet,  or  compromising  on  five 
feet.  Plantations  have  been  set  out  in  this  country  from 
three  to  sixteen  feet  apart  each  way,  and  neither  extreme 
has  succeeded  well.  As  soon  as  the  trees  show  any  lessen- 
ing of  height  growth,  or  show  any  signs  of  serious  inter- 
ference, thinnings  should  be  made,  to  relieve  those  selected 
for  the  permanent  ones  from  the  struggle  for  supremacy, 
and  even  existence.  The  condition  of  the  leader  is  a  good 
indication  of  the  tree's  vigor. 

It  may  be  thought  that  undue  importance  has  been  given 
to  this  tree.  The  reasons  for  so  much  being  said  are,  that  in 
quality  of  lumber  it  is  the  best  of  all  the  Pines ;  it  has  a 
greater  range  of  usefulness  and  adapts  itself  to  a  greater 
variety  and  condition  of  soil  than  any  other ;  it  is  the  most 
rapid  grower  of  any  of  the  White  Pine  family  and  can  be 
more  readily  grown  by  artificial  methods  than  any  other  ; 
and,  furthermore,  it  is  the  only  one  which  has  been  success- 
fully grown  in  that  way.  All  in  all,  it  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  the  important  timber  trees  of  the  United 
States. 

Western  White  Pine  :  Finns  monticola 

This  tree  has  not  been  burdened  with  many  names.  It 
is  almost  universally  known  as  White  Pine,  and  the  lum- 
ber trade  will  undoubtedly  persist  in  calling  it  that  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  similarity  to  the  popular  Eastern  tree  ; 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  little  or  no  wrong  can  come 
to  the  consumer  should  the  lumber  from  the  Western  tree 
be  given  him  instead.  Mr.  George  B.  Sudworth,  dendrolo- 
gist  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  suggests  Western 


144  THE  PINES 

White  Pine,  which  is  highly  appropriate.  It  is  emphatically 
a  Western  tree,  and  its  technical  name,  Pinus  monticola, 
tells  us  that  it  grows  on  the  mountains. 

It  may  be  found  intermittently  on  the  Coast  and  Cas- 
cade ranges  of  mountains  from  the  Canadian  line  well 
down  into  California,  in  eastern  Washington  and  northern 
Idaho  and  Montana.  The  region  of  its  best  development 
is  in  the  three  last-named  states.  The  author  saw  fairly  good 
specimens  of  the  tree  growing  on  the  northei'n  slope  of 
Mount  Shasta,  but  was  informed  that  much  better  ones 
grew  in  northern  Idaho  and  Montana.  It  is  seldom  found 
growing  below  5000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  sometimes 
reaches  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet.  It  flourishes  best  along 
bottom  lands  and  streams. 

At  its  best  it  grows  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  and  a  diameter  of  five  feet,  but  these 
dimensions  are  seldom  found.  It  has  a  slight  taper  of  stem, 
quite  free  of  large  limbs,  when  grown  in  a  dense  stand,  but 
in  the  open  may  have  one  or  more  large  branches  reaching 
out  ten  or  more  feet  beyond  the  other  slender  ones.  This 
peculiarity  distinguishes  the  tree  and  makes  it  easily  re- 
cognized at  a  distance.  In  many  respects  it  resembles  the 
Eastern  White  Pine  and  may  be  only  a  variation  of  that 
tree  brought  about  by  environment.  Its  cones,  however,  are 
much  longer,  sometimes  reaching  fifteen  inches  in  length, 
but  not  proportionally  larger  in  diameter  than  those  of  the 
Eastern  White  Pine.  The  seeds  are  about  one  third  of  an 
inch  long,  with  a  wing  nearly  an  inch  in  length.  The  leaves 
are  bluish  green,  from  three  to  four  and  one  half  inches 
long,  with  something  of  a  silver  sheen,  and,  as  with  other 
Soft  Pines,  in  clusters  of  five.  The  bark  is  thin  and  in  mature 
trees  broken  into  small  square  scales,  in  this  respect  being 
totally  unlike  that  of  any  other  Pine.  The  scales  are  readily 
blown  off  by  winds  and  leave  the  stem  of  the  tree  a  red 
brown  color.  Its  thin  bark,  seldom  an  inch  thick,  makes  it 
an  easy  victim  for  forest  fires. 

Like  all  other  Pines  it  will,  in  early  life,  throw  out  limbs 


WESTERN  WHITE   PINE  145 

close  to  the  ground  and  these  take  on  a  drooping  habit  and 
will  remain  alive  a  long  time,  if  the  tree  is  not  grown  in 
close  quarters.  When  young  its  crown  assumes  an  up- 
right conical  form,  somewhat  like  the  Spruces  and  Firs, 
but  as  it  approaches  maturity  in  the  forests  the  crown  be- 
comes quite  flattened.  There  is  no  reason  to  think  it  may 
not  clean  itself  of  limbs  by  proper  treatment,  although  it 
generally  retains  many  until  quite  mature.  Like  the  Eastern 
White  Pine  it  is  long-lived,  frequently  reaching  an  age  of 
four  hundred  years,  but  it  does  not  grow  as  rapidly. 

The  wood  is  generally  darker  colored  than  that  of  the 
Eastern  species,  being  a  light  reddish-brown,  with  lighter 
colored  sapwood.  It  is  light,  soft,  easily  worked,  not  strong 
or  very  durable,  close-  and  straight-grained  and  easily  split. 
There  is  little  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood, 
and  the  medullary  rays  are  small  and  inconspicuous.  It  can 
be  used  for  practically  all  purposes  to  which  any  of  the  Soft 
Pines  are  devoted.  When  shipped  East  it  is  sold  as  White 
Pine  and  takes  about  the  same  rank  as  the  Eastern  species, 
few  being  able  to  distinguish  them,  although  the  wood  is 
a  trifle  harder. 

No  information  can  be  obtained  concerning  its  propaga- 
tion except  that  which  has  been  experienced  in  attempting 
to  grow  it  for  ornamental  purposes  in  the  eastern  United 
States,  which  has  not  been  very  successful.  No  effort  to 
grow  it  as  a  forest  tree  is  known  to  have  been  undertaken 
anywhere.  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  ^  says :  "  Occasionally 
[planted]  in  the  eastern  United  States,  where  it  grows  more 
vigorously  than  any  other  Pine-tree  of  western  America." 
This,  however,  does  not  necessarily  indicate  that  it  would 
be  a  profitable  tree  to  plant  away  from  its  natural  home, 
for  very  few  of  the  Western  conifers  thrive  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  one  simply  does  better  than  any  other. 
But  there  is  enough  to  encourage  experimenting  with  it  on 
our  highest  wind-swept  mountains  of  the  East  where  only 
the  Hard  Pitch  Pines  now  grow. 

^  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America,  page  5. 


146  THE  PINES 

There  would  seem  to  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  do 
well  when  planted  in  its  natural  habitat,  or  why  it  should  be 
difficult  to  propagate  or  transplant,  unless  the  lack  of  rain- 
fall would  make  transplanting  of  doubtful  success.  If  grow- 
ing trees  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting  them  should  fail, 
seed-sowing  should  certainly  succeed.  Experiments  should 
be  made  with  both  systems,  for  it  is  too  valuable  a  tree  to 
suffer  extinction,  and,  besides,  it  is  more  than  possible  that 
no  other  tree  as  valuable  can  grow  where  it  does.  It  is  being 
rapidly  cut  in  Idaho  and  Montana,  but  no  information  can 
be  obtained  that  any  effort  is  being  made  even  to  permit 
natural  reproduction  to  take  place,  much  less  any  to  aid 
it.  Unless  something  is  done  in  that  line  the  tree  will,  in 
good  time,  be  practically  destroyed. 

There  are  several  other  White  Pines  in  the  mountain 
regions  of  the  West,  but,  excepting  the  great  Sugar  Pine, 
they  are  of  no  great  value,  being  small  and  scattered,  and 
all  grow  on  elevations  ranging  from  7000  to  12,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Not  much  is  known  of  them  and  their  use- 
fulness is  largely  conjectural. 

Sugar  Pine  :  Plnus  lambertiana 

While  this  tree  is  best  known  by  the  common  name 
here  accepted,  it  has  seven  others,  all  suggestive  of  its  dis- 
tinctive features,  but  none  so  appropriately  bestowed  as 
Sugar  Pine.  John  Muir,  in  his  delightful  book  entitled 
"Our  National  Parks"  (page  112),  says  :  "  The  sugar,  which 
gives  name  to  the  tree,  exudes  from  the  heartwood  on 
wounds  made  by  fire  or  the  axe,  and  forms  irregular  crisp 
white  candy-like  masses.  To  the  taste  of  most  people  it  is 
as  good  as  maple  sugar,  though  it  cannot  be  eaten  in  large 
quantities." 

Its  natural  home  is  along  the  Coast  and  Cascade  ranges 
of  mountains  in  Oregon,  and  from  there  southward  along 
the  Coast  and  Sierra  Nevada  ranges  to  southern  California. 
It  is  seldom  found  below  3000  or  more  than  10,000  feet 


SUGAR  PINE  147 

above  the  ocean.  From  4000  to  7000  feet  appears  to  be 
the  altitude  best  adapted  to  it.  Its  best  development  is, 
probably,  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
the  central  and  northern  parts  of  California.  The  author 
saw  some  very  fine  sjjecimens  around  the  base  of  Mount 
Shasta.  Mr.  Muir,  as  above  cited,  speaks  of  the  tree  in  the 
following  literally  accurate  yet  glowing  terms  :  '*  In  many 
places,  especially  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  main  ridges 
between  the  rivers,  it  forms  the  bulk  of  the  forest,  but 
mostly  it  is  intimately  associated  with  its  noble  companions, 
above  which  it  towers  in  glorious  majesty  on  every  hill, 
ridge,  and  plateau  from  one  extremity  of  the  range  to  the 
other  ...  —  the  largest,  noblest  and  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  seventy  or  eighty  species  of  pine  trees  in  the  world,  and 
of  all  the  conifers  second  only  to  King  Sequoia." 

In  early  life  the  tree  is  generally  covered  with  rather 
slender  limbs  from  the  ground  up,  and  though  the  crown 
is  somewhat  open  it  assumes  a  conical  form.  Its  tendency 
to  take  that  shape  at  that  time  is  far  greater  than  with  our 
Eastern  White  Pine,  but  there  is,  in  the  main,  less  uniform- 
ity of  form  in  mature  trees  than  with  most  conifers.  As 
it  approaches  maturitj',  however,  it  develops  a  peculiarity 
that  always  makes  it  recognizable.  It  throws  out  near  the 
top,  long,  slender,  but  somewhat  specialized  limbs,  which 
stand  out  horizontally  or  slightly  drooping,  with  large 
pendant  cones,  in  clusters  or  singl}'^,  at  the  ends.  Sometimes 
these  limbs  reach  out  thirty-five  or  forty  feet  from  the  stem, 
branching  mainly  at  the  ends.  The  cones  require  two  years 
to  mature  and  hang  on  another  year  after  that  event,  and 
thus  emphasize  that  peculiar  feature.  One  who  has  once 
seen  a  Sugar  Pine  with  its  outstretched  arms,  holding  great 
drooping  cones,  will  never  forget  the  sight  or  fail  to  recog- 
nize the  tree. 

By  all  odds  it  is  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of  all 
the  Soft  Pines,  and  of  the  Pine  family  only  the  Western 
Yellow  Pine  can  lay  claim  to  rival  it  in  size.  It  is  claimed 
that  trees  three  hundred  feet  high  and  twenty  feet  in  dia«- 


148  THE  PINES 

meter  have  been  found,  but  it  is  seldom  that  one  two 
hundred  feet  high  and  seven  feet  in  diameter  is  seen.  Its 
rapidity  of  growth  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Eastern 
White  Pine,  but  its  long  life  —  six  hundred  or  more  years 
—  permits  it  far  to  surpass  that  tree  in  bigness.  As  age 
advances,  its  slender  lower  limbs  die  and  fall  off  and  the 
tree  will  show  a  clean,  straight,  and  slightly  tapering  stem 
for  one  half  of  its  height,  and  its  crown  loses  its  conical 
form,  sometimes  showing  a  broad  flat  top  sixty  or  eighty 
feet  across.  This  habit  of  dropping  its  lower  limbs  seems 
to  occur  whether  or  not  it  is  crowded  in  early  life,  and 
makes  the  tree  exceptionally  valuable  as  a  lumber  pro- 
ducer. No  other  Pine  can  show  such  wide  clear  stuff,  and 
it  is  surpassed  in  that  respect  by  few  other  timber  trees 
in  the  world. 

The  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Eastern  White 
Pine.  It  is  light,  soft,  —  but  not  quite  so  much  so  as  its 
Eastern  relative,  —  straight-grained,  is  easily  worked,  light 
red-brown  in  color,  with  rather  thin,  cream-colored  sap- 
wood,  and  with  little  difference  in  color  or  character  be- 
tween spring  and  summer  wood.  Its  medullary  rays  are 
small  and  inconspicuous  and  it  seasons  well  and  shrinks 
moderately  in  seasoning.  It  holds  glue  well  and  takes  paint 
and  varnish  admirably.  It  can  be  used  wherever  White 
Pine  can  be,  and,  while  not  fully  equal  to  the  latter  in  all 
respects,  it  is  no  mean  rival,  and  it  is  superior  in  its  ability 
to  furnish  wide  stuff. 

The  cones  are  shaped  almost  precisely  like  those  of  the 
White  Pine,  but  are  very  much  larger,  seldom  being  less 
than  ten  inches  long  and  three  inches  in  diameter,  and 
frequently  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  long  and  four  inches 
through  the  largest  part.  The  seeds  average  about  one  half 
inch  in  length  and  three  eighths  inch  wide,  are  flattened 
somewhat,  and  are  esteemed  a  choice  edible  by  men  and 
animals.  The  wing  attached  to  the  seed  is  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  one  half  inch  wide.  On  account 
of  the  seeds  being  edible  there  is  little  hope  of  natural  re- 


SUGAR  PINE  141 

forestation.  In  fact,  the  young  growth  now  coming  on  can- 
not fill  the  place  of  the  mature  trees  being  cut.  Indians, 
Chinese,  Italians,  and  other  men,  as  well  as  squirrels,  make 
great  inroads  on  the  supply  of  seeds  produced,  and  as  the 
tree  is  not  a  prolific  seeder,  and  does  not  bear  when  young, 
those  not  consumed  fall  far  short  of  the  amount  needed  for 
natural  reforestation.  Probably  the  electrically  inspired 
Douglas  squirrel  is  the  worst  offender.  He  never  rests.  As 
soon  as  the  seeds  begin  to  ripen  he  will,  without  fear  or 
trembling,  climb  clear  out  to  the  ends  of  the  long  limbs 
where  the  cones  always  grow,  and  deliberately  cut  them 
off,  notwithstanding  that  he  may  be  one  hundred  or  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  limb  the 
cone  hangs  on  no  larger  than  one's  finger.  If  the  noise  of 
the  falling  cone  does  not  attract  some  man  or  marauding 
beast  the  squirrel  descends  and  secures  the  seeds. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  renders  natural  reproduction  a 
slow  and  uncertain  event,  while  forest  fires  may,  and  too 
frequently  do,  kill  off  the  young  trees  that  come  forth. 
Efforts  should  be  made  to  gather  the  seeds  and  plant  them, 
but  instead,  they  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast  the  same  as  chestnuts  are  sold 
in  the  East.  Unless  seeds  are  sown  or  trees  planted,  the 
tree  will  become  extinct  as  soon  as  fire  and  the  axe  of  the 
lumberman  can  bring  it  about,  which  will  not  be  long. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  grow  it  in  the  East,  but  thus 
far  success  has  not  been  achieved.  Through  lack  of  moist- 
ure in  the  atmosphere,  or  from  some  other  not  well-under- 
stood cause,  it  does  not  thrive  in  the  United  States  east 
of  its  natural  home.  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  ^  says  :  "  The 
Sugar  Pine  has  grown  slowly  in  cultivation  and  shows  little 
promise  of  attaining  the  large  size  and  great  beauty  which 
distinguish  it  in  its  native  forests."  Very  good  results,  how- 
ever, have  been  obtained  in  Europe,  especially  in  north- 
ern Germany,  where  there  is,  doubtless,  more  humidity 
in  the  atmosphere  than  in  this  country,  east  of  where  the 
^  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America,  page  6. 


150  THE  PINES 

tree  naturally  grows.  The  seeds  the  author  experimented 
with  did  not  germinate  well,  but  that  may  have  been  due  to 
age  or  improper  handling  when  gathered. 

No  advice  can  be  intelligently  given  as  to  the  distance 
apart  the  seeds  should  be  planted  or  trees  set  out,  for  no- 
thing, so  far  as  can  be  learned,  has  been  done  in  that  line 
in  its  native  domain.  The  habit  of  trimming  itself  as  it 
grows  old  would  indicate  wider  setting  or  planting  than 
with  the  White  Pine.  A  careful  study  of  the  tree  in  its 
natural  habitat  and  in  all  its  stages  of  growth,  with  a  view 
to  ascertaining  what  is  requisite,  must  come  before  positive 
directions  can  be  safely  given  on  this  point.  It  develops  a 
tap-root  in  early  life,  which  would  indicate  that  planting 
seeds  would  be  advisable,  especially  as  in  its  native  realm  it 
must  endure  long  seasons  with  little  rain,  during  which 
planted  trees  would  suffer,  so  that  they  would  be  likely  to 
fail  the  first  year. 

LoNGLEAF  Pine  :  Pinus  palustris 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Longleaf  Pine  is  loaded  with  so 
many  names,  the  majority  of  which  are  ridiculously  absurd. 
The  United  States  Forest  Service  Chech-List  of  Forest 
Trees  enumerates  no  less  than  twenty-eight,  and  these  are 
mainly  bestowed  upon  it  in  the  various  localities  where  it 
grows.  Away  from  its  home  it  is,  in  the  main,  commercially 
known  as  Yellow  Pine  and  Georgia  Pine.  These  designa- 
tions are  also  unfortunate,  for  there  are  other  species  of 
pine  known  to  the  trade  as  Yellow  Pine,  and  the  State  of 
Georgia  produces  several  other  timber  Pines.  It  would  be 
far  better  if  it  should  be  called  by  its  correct  name,  — 
Longleaf  Pine,  —  for  that  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
tree,  and  one  that  is  possessed  by  none  other,  except  the 
Cuban  Pine,  which  in  so  many  respects  resembles  the  Long- 
leaf  in  the  character  of  the  lumber  cut  from  it  that  distinc- 
tion in  the  lumber  trade  is  unnecessary. 

The  natural  range  of  the  Longleaf  Pine  is  entirely  con- 


LONGLEAF  PINE  151 

fined  to  the  Southern  States,  but  in  much  of  the  region 
where  it  once  flourished  little  can  now  be  found,  it  having 
been  cut  off  and  followed  by  Cuban,  Loblolly,  and  Short- 
leaf  Pine,  and  various  broadleaf  trees ;  or  the  ground  has 
been  devoted  to  agriculture,  or  has  become  barren  waste. 
Starting  from  Norfolk,  Virginia,  it  was  found  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  in  a  belt  averaging  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  miles  in  width,  well  down  to  the  southern  part  of 
Florida,  and  thence  along  the  Gulf  Coast  to  western  Miss- 
issippi, with  varying  outlying  regions  in  northern  Louisi- 
ana, eastern  Texas,  and  northern  Alabama. 

Its  best  development  was  on  the  low  "  pine  hills  "  and 
plains  which  are  elevated  from  one  hundred  to  sometimes 
six  hundred  feet  above  tide.  It  prefers  a  sandy  soil  with 
a  porous  subsoil  fairly  abundant  in  plant  food,  will  accept 
one  somewhat  sterile  if  the  subsoil  is  porous  and  moisture 
can  be  reached  at  no  very  great  depth,  but  does  not  take 
kindly  to  a  wet  soil.  It  is  exacting,  however,  in  the  matter 
of  geographical  location,  rarely  growing,  except  in  northern 
Alabama,  over  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  miles  from 
the  coast,  and  cultivation  outside  of  these  limits  should  be 
entered  upon  with  careful  consideration.  Atmospheric  con- 
ditions, brought  about  by  proximity  to  the  ocean,  undoubt- 
edly largely  control  in  the  matter,  yet  the  temperature  may 
have  considerable  to  do  with  it,  as  probably  nine  tenths  of 
the  area  once  occupied  by  it  does  not  exceed  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  above  the  ocean,  and  much  of  it  is  only  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet. 

Ordinarily  its  greatest  height  of  stem  is  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
two  to  two  and  one  half  feet.  Sometimes  it  may  be  found 
to  exceed  this,  but  rarely.  Probably  the  average  of  trees 
cut  for  sawlogs  does  not  exceed  twenty-three  or  twenty- 
four  inches,  breast  high,  with  a  height  of  eighty  to  one 
hundred  feet.  Such  trees  must  be  well  on  to  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  or  more  years  of  age.  From  one  half  to 
two  thirds  of  their  total  height  is  available  for  timber.  The 


152  THE  PINES 

stem  of  the  Longleaf  Pine  in  the  forest  Is  straight  and  but 
slightly  tapering,  and  free  from  limbs  fully,  if  not  more 
than,  one  half  its  height,  occasionally  reaching  eighty  feet 
without  a  limb.  When  it  has  once  reached  the  height  be- 
yond which  it  refuses  to  grow,  it  throws  out  large  limbs, 
none  of  which  are  particularly  specialized,  but  are  branched 
and  crooked,  and  have  dense  tufts  of  long  dark  green  leaves 
at  the  ends.  The  leaves  are  frequently  eighteen  inches  long, 
are  in  clusters  of  three,  and  inclosed  at  their  base  in  a  long 
sheath.  They  are  so  flexible  that  they  hang  down  from  the 
limbs,  and  even  in  the  period  of  rapid  growth  the  leaves  of 
the  "  leader  "  hang  over  gracefully  and  plume-like  instead 
of  standing  upright,  as  with  most  other  Pines.  The  leaves 
are  shed  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.  They  are  sometimes 
woven  into  coarse  fabrics  for  mats  and  the  like. 

The  wood  is  heavy  and  strong,  among  the  Pines  only 
the  Cuban  Pine  equaling  it  in  weight.  None  of  the  softwood 
conifers,  except  the  Douglas  Fir,  surpass  it  in  strength  or 
stiffness,  while  in  hardness  and  durability  of  heartwood, 
when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  in  contact  with  the  soil, 
it  surpasses  that  excellent  wood.  It  is  tough,  does  not  warp 
or  split  in  seasoning,  is  straight-grained,  with  light  red  to 
orange-colored  heartwood,  and  a  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
The  thickness  of  the  sapwood,  however,  varies  with  the  lo- 
cality, and  in  all  cases  it  is  thinner  in  old  than  in  young 
trees,  and  frequently  proportionally  less  towards  the  top 
than  at  the  bottom.  There  is  a  marked  difference  in  both 
color  and  hardness  of  the  spring  and  summer  wood,  the 
latter  being  more  heavily  charged  with  resin.  The  heart- 
wood  is  highly  resinous  and  the  sapwood  and  live  bark 
are  well  filled  with  turpentine.  It  is  the  large  amount  of 
resin  in  the  heartwood  that  causes  it  successfully  to  resist 
decay,  and  the  turpentine  in  the  sapwood  furnishes  the  na^ 
val  stores  of  commerce.  Old  fallen  trees  may  be  found  with 
the  sapwood  all  decayed  and  the  heartwood  perfectly  sound. 
A  century  may  have  elapsed  since  they  fell.  The  annual 
rings  are  very  distinct ;  the  wood  is  moderately  coarse- 


LONGLEAF  PINE  153 

grained,  and  its  fibrous  structure  compact.  The  medullary 
rays  are  neither  large  nor  conspicuous.  In  addition  to  its 
stiffness  the  wood  is  elastic.  It  is  used  for  a  large  number 
of  purposes.  Its  tall,  straight,  and  stiff  stems  have  long 
furnished  masts  for  vessels.  No  better  timber  can  be  found 
for  the  construction  of  railroad  cars.  The  heartwood  is 
largely  used  for  railroad  ties,  and  it  enters  into  heavy  con- 
struction work,  such  as  bridges,  trestles,  long  beams,  and 
the  like.  It  is  largely  employed  for  inside  finish,  taking  var- 
nish well,  and  when  the  heartwood  is  properly  sawed  it  has 
no  equal  for  flooring,  except  Sugar  Maple,  which  is  superior 
in  halls  and  other  public  places  where  great  wear  comes. 

Longleaf  Pine  is  emphatically  a  light-demanding  tree, 
so  much  so  that  small  trees  —  seedlings  —  are  rarely  found 
where  the  crowns  of  larger  ones  shade  the  ground.  Its  de- 
mand for  light  begins  with  its  birth,  and  this  insistence 
accounts  for  the  absence  of  seedlings  where  the  ground  is 
shaded.  Even  when  growing  in  the  open  its  lower  limbs 
will  die  and  drop  off  on  account  of  the  shade  of  those 
above,  leaving  a  fairly  clean  stem. 

While  the  tree  will  sometimes  bear  cones  at  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  years  of  age,  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  to 
furnish  an  abundance  of  seed  at  that  age,  and  when  ma- 
ture it  is  not  a  prolific  seed-bearer.  The  cones  are  from  six 
to  nine  inches  long,  slightly  curved,  and  with  thick,  blunt 
scales  carrying  a  sharp  point  or  beak  at  the  end.  The  seeds 
ripen  in  late  summer  and  the  cones  open  only  in  dry 
weather.  If  the  weather  does  not  prove  favorable  they  may 
not  open  until  the  middle  of  autumn.  The  seeds  germinate 
readily  when  under  favorable  conditions,  and  it  is  not  un- 
usual to  find  them  sprouted  before  winter  sets  in.  The  cones 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  the  seeds  are  ripe,  carefully 
dried,  and  the  seeds  shaken  out,  for  if  they  remain  wet 
there  is  great  danger  that  they  will  either  sprout  or  mould. 
The  seeds  are  larger  than  those  of  the  White  Pine,  with 
proportionally  larger  wings.  They  are  edible  and  are  de- 
voured by  squirrels  and  other  seed-eating  animals. 


154  THE  PINES 

Observation  shows  that  natural  reproduction  is  slow  and 
uncertain.  If  the  seeds  are  not  sown  in  proper  places,  or 
are  largely  destroyed  by  animals,  or  are  not  frequently 
produced,  a  new  crop  of  trees  cannot  be  brought  forth 
to  any  considerable  extent.  Another  thing  works  against 
natural  reproduction.  If  the  seed  falls  in  a  suitable  place 
and  germinates,  the  young  tree's  struggle  has  begun  at  a 
time  when  it  is  least  able  to  combat  the  foes  which  attack 
it.  The  young  tree  seldom  attains  a  height  of  over  seven 
inches  in  as  many  years  from  its  birth.  If  cattle  are  per- 
mitted to  tramp  over  the  ground,  or  fire  runs  over  it,  — 
practically  a  sure  event,  for  the  "pineries"  are  almost 
certain  to  be  burned  over  where  there  is  enough  material 
to  burn,  in  order  to  furnish  pasture  for  cattle,  —  the  little 
trees  are  sure  to  be  destroyed.  Or,  if  the  grass  and  weeds 
are  very  rank  and  tall,  they  may  be  suppressed. 

Neither  is  artificial  reforestation  without  its  difficulties. 
Not  another  of  our  valuable  timber  trees  has  so  pronounced 
a  tap-root,  one  which  so  persists  from  youth  to  old  age.  As 
stated  above,  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  of  its  life  the 
stem  does  not  often  reach  more  than  that  number  of  inches 
above  the  surface,  while  the  tap-root  may  have  penetrated 
the  ground  that  number  of  feet,  and  at  maturity  it  fre- 
quently reaches  a  depth  of  sixteen  feet ;  and,  what  is  more, 
any  interference  with  the  tap-root  is  emphatically  resented 
during  the  whole  life  of  the  tree.  It  does  not  appear  to 
have  the  power  to  overcome  any  serious  obstruction  it  may 
meet  with  in  the  ground.  Even  a  clayey  or  impervious  sub- 
soil within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface  will  most  seriously  in- 
terfere with  the  tree's  growth.  After  six  or  seven  years  of 
age  it  grows  rapidly  until  it  reaches  an  age  of  sixty  or 
seventy  years,  when  its  annual  increase  in  height  begins  to 
lessen  and  the  annual  layers  are  thinner.  Of  course  this 
largely  depends  upon  surroundings  and  conditions  of  soil, 
moisture,  and  the  like. 

As  no  interference  with  the  tap-root  will  be  tolerated, 
artificial  propagation  must  consist  entirely  in  gathering 


^m 

^t  J 

p] 

ffi^^l 

^  ^ 

..  ^ 

^i> 

KV-^'' 

^;l 

L*.   -IS^^ 

^-     : 

£$ 

fe 

m  ''.■  [ 

it 

m 

ii?w 

WP  I     : 

-M 

tt 

Pr*^ 

vt       - 

U,: 

W  '^' 

::^-   'I 

1 

Kjyj 

i^^^HwH^r;   :m 

mm     ^ 

I'll 
f 

■Ss^^ 

-r^-^'-r 

ROUND,  OR  UNTAPrKI'      I      I        U— VIRGIN   FOREST  OF   LONGLEAP 
I'l.XL,    OLlLLA,  GEORGIA 

Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


LONGLEAF  PINE  155 

and  planting  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  grow  and  where 
the  young  trees  will  be  protected  from  their  worst  enemies, 
—  fire  and  cattle.  Gathering  seeds  and  planting  in  hills  — 
broadcast  sowing  would  not  be  advisable  —  should  be  prac- 
tically along  the  same  lines  as  for  other  Pines.  While  its 
habit  is  to  grow  in  groves  of  pure  stands,  it  will  submit  to 
the  presence  of  other  species  that  do  not  deprive  it  of  its 
needed  light. 

The  future  of  the  Longleaf  Pine  is  not  at  all  promising. 
It  is  the  great  turpentine-producing  tree.  The  demand  for 
naval  stores  will  cause  its  ultimate  destruction  unless  mea- 
sures be  taken  looking  to  reproduction.  The  United  States 
Forest  Service  has  done  good  work  in  devising  and  intro- 
ducing a  more  economical  and  far  better  system  of  harvest- 
ing the  crude  turpentine,  one  which  saves  not  only  more  of 
it  but  injures  the  tree  less  than  the  old  method.  But  the 
tapping  must  go  on,  and  ultimately  the  tree  is  completely 
girdled  and  will  die.  For  a  long  time  it  was  believed  that 
frequent  tappings  caused  injury  to  the  wood,  and  the  lum- 
ber trade  demanded  that  which  was  cut  from  untapped 
trees.  This  belief  has  been  shown  by  the  United  States 
Forest  Service  to  be  erroneous.  Tests  show  that  no  de- 
terioration in  any  shape  takes  place  in  the  wood  in  conse- 
quence of  tapping  trees  for  turpentine. 

There  is  a  constant  and  growing  demand  for  heartwood 
timber  cut  from  this  tree  for  use  for  general  construction, 
and  especially  for  freight  cars  and  railroad  ties, — the  lat- 
ter requiring  a  tree  fully  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  it 
is  seldom  that  more  than  one  tie  is  taken  from  a  tree. 
Besides  this  the  trees  are  scarred  and  seriously  wounded 
by  the  turpentine  gatherer ;  they  are  also  handicapped  by 
slow  growth  in  early  life,  and  are  subject  to  ruthless  de- 
struction by  cattle  and  fire.  Suffering  in  all  these  ways, 
the  tree  will  soon  become  practically  extinct  unless  those 
who  have  to  do  with  it  take  measures  to  restore  and  care 
for  it. 


1S6  THE  PINES 

Cuban  Pine  :  Pinus  heterophylla 

Cuban  Pine  has  escaped  the  burden  of  many  names, 
no  doubt  because  it  was  long  thought  to  be  a  variety  of 
Longleaf  Pine,  and  even  botanists  did  not  consider  it  a 
separate  species  until  a  comparatively  recent  date.  There 
is  no  distinction  made  in  the  lumber  trade.  The  most  gen- 
erally used  local  names  are  Slash  Pine  and  Swamp  Pine, 
the  latter  quite  appropriate. 

Its  natural  range  is  in  a  belt  from  thirty  to  one  hundred 
miles  wide  from  South  Carolina  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  to 
southern  Florida  and  thence  west  along  the  Gulf  near  the 
Mississippi  River.  As  this  indicates,  its  natural  home  is 
much  more  restricted  than  that  of  the  Longleaf.  It  is  dis- 
tinctively a  coast  tree,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  it 
cannot  be  spread  much,  if  any,  beyond  its  natural  range. 
It  prefers  a  moist,  sandy  soil,  and  even  grows  in  swamps. 
Where  the  ground  is  not  too  wet,  Longleaf  Pine,  which  it 
closely  resembles,  will  be  found  a  congenial  companion. 
Its  leaves,  however,  are  not  as  long,  seldom  being  over 
twelve  inches,  and  they  are  in  bundles  of  twos  and  threes, 
inclosed  in  a  long  sheath.  They  are  a  glassy,  deep-green 
color,  and  are  shed  the  second  year.  They  grow  in  dense 
tufts  at  the  end  of  the  branches,  but  are  not  so  flexible  or 
pendant  as  those  of  the  Longleaf.  On  the  average  the 
Cuban  Pine  does  not  grow  as  large  as  the  Longleaf  and 
its  stem  tapers  a  trifle  more ;  and  not  as  large  dimension 
stuff  can  be  cut  from  it,  although  trees  one  hundred  feet 
high  and  thirty  inches  in  diameter  are  frequently  found. 

The  wood  is  exceedingly  hard  for  a  Pine,  if  anything 
harder  than  that  of  the  Longleaf,  is  strong  and  durable, 
but  splits  easily.  It  is  heavy,  —  a  green  log  will  sink,  — 
the  heartwood  light  orange-red,  with  thick  lighter-colored 
sapwood  and  very  resinous.  Thin  stuff  warps  badly  in 
seasoning  unless  carefully  piled.  It  is  used  for  substan- 
tially all  purposes  that  Longleaf  Pine  is  put  to. 

The  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder ;  it  bears  cones  early  and 


SHORTLEAF  PINE  157 

seldom  fails  to  produce  a  good  crop  of  fertile  seeds  each 
year.  The  cones  are  smaller  than  the  Longleaf  aud  have 
less  curvature ;  nor  do  they  open  as  readily,  frequently 
holding  some  of  their  seeds  for  several  months.  Two  years 
are  required  to  perfect  the  seeds,  which  are  quite  triangular 
in  shape,  but  the  wings  are  similar  in  form  to  those  of 
other  Pines.  If  they  fall  where  the  sunlight  reaches  them, 
they  readily  germinate,  but  the  tree  does  not,  in  either 
early  or  adult  life,  demand  as  much  light  as  the  Longleaf. 
The  young  plants  grow  rapidly.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see 
them  from  six  to  eight  inches  high  the  first  year.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  year,  twelve  inches  may  be  reached.  It 
has  a  tap-root,  but  this  feature  is  not  strongly  developed, 
which  makes  planting  in  the  nursery  possible.  Natural  re- 
production will  take  place,  however,  if  not  prevented,  but 
seed  planting  would  give  a  more  regular  and  uniform  stand; 
this  is  desirable  in  order  to  compel  all  the  trees  to  drop 
their  lower  limbs  and  form  straight,  clean  stems,  which 
will  not  occur  if  they  are  left  to  grow  in  the  open.  The 
distance  apart  should  be  about  six  feet. 

Shortleaf  Pine  :   Finns  echinata 

Notwithstanding  that  it  is  encumbered  with  fifteen 
different  names  in  the  regions  where  it  grows,  the  lumber 
cut  from  Shortleaf  Yellow  Pine  is  frequently  mixed  in  the 
lumber  trade  with  other  Southern  Hard  Pines  and  sold  as 
"Longleaf,"  "Yellow,"  "Southern,"  "North  Carolina,"  or 
"Georgia  Pine,"  as  the  conscience  or  lack  of  knowledge 
of  the  dealer  may  lead  him  to  select.  It  is  true  that  for 
some  purposes  Shortleaf  Pine  will  serve  as  well  as  Long- 
leaf  or  Cuban,  and  it  is  better  than  either  Old-Field  or 
Pitch  Pine,  but  where  strength,  stiffness,  and  durability 
are  required  it  is  inferior  to  either  of  the  first  two  named ; 
but  its  great  value  as  a  timber  tree  should  not  be  disputed. 
Its  wide-spread  distribution,  adaptability  to  varied  soils 
and  surroundings,  its  wonderful  power  of  reproduction,  its 


158  THE  PINES 

rapid  growth,  especially  when  young,  coupled  with  the 
many  good  qualities  of  the  lumber  cut  from  it,  place  it 
high  in  the  list  of  Hard  Pines  in  economic  importance. 
Taking  everything  into  consideration  it  will  probably  play 
a  more  important  part  in  the  future  lumber  supply  of  this 
country  than  will  either  or  both  of  the  Longleaf  Pines, 
notwithstanding  that  the  limiber  cut  from  them  is  of  better 
quality. 

Its  natural  range  extends  from  western  Connecticut 
southward  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  to  the  coast  of  northern  Florida,  and  from  the 
southern  end  of  the  Appalachians  to  the  Gulf  Coast,  thence 
westward  to  eastern  Texas  and  western  Arkansas,  north 
to  Missouri,  from  there  eastward  across  Tennessee  to  the 
western  side  of  the  Appalachians,  and  thence  northward 
along  both  sides  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to  southern 
New  York.  Although  never  abundant  north  of  Maryland, 
some  fine  isolated  specimens  can  still  be  found  in  northern 
Pennsylvania.  By  far  the  best  development  is  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  in  northeastern  Texas,  western  Arkan- 
sas, and  southern  Missouri,  and  also  in  northern  Mississippi 
and  Georgia,  although  very  excellent  stands  have  been 
found  throughout  most  of  its  entire  range.  In  the  southern 
localities  named  it  covers  more  or  less  of  the  entire  ground 
with  a  pure  stand.  In  other  localities  it  is  associated  with 
other  conifers  and  broadleaved  trees. 

The  tree  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  four  feet,  but  these  dimen- 
sions are  not  common.  It  seldom  rises  above  ninety  feet  or 
has  a  diameter  over  thirty  inches.  It  is  less  uniform  in  size 
and  growth,  and  also  in  character  of  lumber,  than  some 
species,  because  of  its  great  range,  embracing  varied  con- 
ditions of  soil,  climate,  and  exposure.  All  this  should  be 
carefully  observed  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  propagate 
it  artificially.  The  trunk  is  slightly  tapering  and  in  its 
mature  years  the  tree  shows  a  round  top  with  large  limbs 
about  midway  in  the  height  of  the  crown,  and  smaller  ones 


SHORTLEAF  PINE  159 

both  above  and  below,  the  latter  gradually  dying ;  but  it 
throws  out  limbs  between  the  annual  whorls  more  frequently 
than  any  other  Pine,  thus  making  it  difficult  to  determine 
its  age  by  counting  the  latter.  The  crown  is  not  much  given 
to  branching.  It  is  fairly  tolerant  of  shade  and  not  so  ex- 
acting as  some  Hard  Pines.  It  grows  rapidly  when  young, 
and  hence  can  suppress  its  slow-growing  neighbors  when 
starting  out  in  life  on  an  even  footing.  Consequently,  when 
associated  with  Longleaf  Pine  it  practically  supplants  that 
tree.  It  will  frequently  grow  more  feet  in  height  during  the 
first  six  or  eight  years  of  its  life  than  the  Longleaf  can  in 
inches.  Its  demand  for  light  is  strong  enough,  however,  to 
cause  its  lower  limbs  to  die  and  drop  off  when  crowded, 
giving  a  straight,  clean  stem,  free  from  knots  and  limbs, 
for  a  large  part  of  its  height. 

The  tree  does  not  seem  to  have  fully  determined  on  the 
number  of  leaves  it  should  have  in  a  cluster,  as  it  frequently 
shows  two  and  three  on  the  same  tree.  Some  of  these  begin 
to  fall  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  while  others  con- 
tinue to  drop  for  four  or  five  years.  They  are  from  three 
to  four  inches  long,  —  this  gives  the  tree  its  appropriate 
name  of  Shortleaf ,  —  slender,  soft  and  dark  bluish-green 
when  mature.  The  cones  seldom  exceed  two  inches  in  length, 
and  hang  on  the  tree  for  years.  They  are  borne  in  great 
abundance  nearly  every  year  and  the  seeds  have  a  high  per- 
centage of  fertility.  As  with  all  other  pines  the  seeds  have 
wings,  but  they  are  the  smallest  borne  by  any  of  the  timber 
Pines  and  consequently  are  blown  to  a  great  distance.  There 
are  nearly  twice  as  many  seeds  in  a  pound  as  there  are  of 
White  Pine,  while  the  wings  are  proportionally  larger  than 
those  attached  to  that  seed.  Their  light  weight,  compara- 
tively large  wing,  and  great  abundance  have  much  to  do 
with  the  tree's  extended  range,  causing  it  to  cover  the 
ground  completely  with  a  new  growth  when  the  old  one  is 
cut  away  and  seed  trees  are  left. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft  for  a  Hard  Pine,  close-grained, 
not  strong,  with  light  brown  heartwood,  and  nearly  white  but 


160  THE  PINES 

thick  sap  wood.  All  of  these  characteristics  may  and  do  vary 
with  location.  The  heartwood  is  modei-ately  durable,  having 
more  or  less  resin  in  it,  but  as  in  all  other  timber  Pines,  the 
sapwood  decays  rapidly  when  exposed.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  between  summer  and  spring  growth  both  in  color 
and  hardness.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  but  incon- 
spicuous. Both  heartwood  and  sapwood  grow  darker  with 
age.  It  is  used  for  substantially  the  same  purposes  as  Long- 
leaf,  except  where  great  strength  and  durability  when  ex- 
posed are  demanded,  although  much  of  it  is  by  no  means 
a  weak  wood,  while  its  heartwood  will  resist  decay  fairly 
well.  The  lack  of  uniformity  in  character  and  strength  is 
one  serious  obstacle  to  its  more  general  use  for  heavy  work. 
Lumber  sawed  from  it  should  be  promptly  kiln-dried,  as  a 
fungus  attacks  the  sapwood  and  rapidly  discolors  it.  For  a 
long  time  "blueing,"  as  the  discoloration  is  termed,  was  a 
serious  drawback  to  its  introduction,  but  now  that  modern 
ingenuity  has  overcome  that,  no  objection  is  made  to  the 
sapwood  for  many  purposes  where  not  exposed. 

As  indicated,  natural  reforestation  will  rapidly  take  place 
if  conditions  are  at  all  favorable,  and  if  care  were  taken  to 
aid  Nature  in  that  work  there  would  be  no  need  to  resort 
to  the  expensive  method  of  raising  treips  in  a  nursery  or 
even  to  plant  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  grow.  However, 
as  the  seedlings  do  not  develop  a  tap-root  of  any  import- 
ance until  three  or  four  years  old,  ample  time  is  given  to 
transplant  before  that  is  seriously  in  the  way.  Seed  gather- 
ing and  care  of  the  same  should  be  carried  on  along  the 
same  lines  laid  down  for  White  Pine,  and  so,  too,  should 
planting  and  setting  out  trees  be  conducted,  if  it  be  found 
necessary  or  desirable.  Seedlings  one  year  old  are  amply 
large  for  transplanting.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that 
so  little  effort  is  being  put  forth  to  aid  this  valuable  tree 
to  maintain  its  existence,  which  it  will  do  if  permitted. 


LOBLOLLY  (OLD-FIELD)   PINE,   SHAX>'OX  COUNTY,   MISSOURI 
Couriesy  of  J.  B.  IFhite,  President  of  Missouri  Lumber  and  Milling  Company. 


SHORTLEAF  PIXE,   SHANNON   COUNTY,  MISSOURI 
Courtesy  of  J.  B.  White,  President  of  Missouri  Lumber  and  Mining  Compani 


OLD-FIELD  PINE  161 

Old-Field  Pine  :  Loblolly  Pine  :  Pinus  tceda 

Among  all  the  twenty-two  local  names  given  to  this  tree 
none  is  more  absurd  than  "  Loblolly,"  a  term  of  doubtful 
meaning  at  best.  "  Old-Field  "  is  much  more  appropriate 
and  a  name  which  indicates  a  prominent  characteristic  of 
the  tree,  —  its  persistency  in  encroaching  upon  and  occupy- 
ing abandoned  fields  and  open  places.  It  is  botanically 
known  as  Pinus  tceda  —  torch  pine  —  from  the  use  of  the 
resinous  heartwood  for  torches.  Commercially  it  is  classed 
with  the  other  Southern  Pines  and  sold  as  "  Yellow  Pine," 
"  Southern  Pine,"  "  North  Carolina  Pine,"  or  "  Georgia 
Pine."  For  some  purposes  there  is  no  great  difference  in 
the  value  of  the  lumber,  but  if  the  consumer  desires  strong, 
stiff,  durable  timber,  or  first-class  flooring,  he  will  not  find 
it  in  Old-Field  as  he  would  in  Longleaf,  Cuban,  or  even 
Shortleaf  Pine. 

Its  natural  range  lies  in  a  belt  some  two  hundred  miles 
wide  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  Delaware  to  Florida, 
nearly  covering  the  latter  state,  and  from  there  along  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  central  Mississippi.  It  ranges  over  the 
entire  State  of  Alabama,  all  of  eastern  Mississippi,  and 
part  of  central  and  western  Tennessee.  There  is  a  large 
area  of  it  in  Texas,  with  considerable  in  Louisiana,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Indian  Territory.  It  may  be  found  forming  almost 
the  entire  stand  in  many  places  west  of  the  Mississippi 
Eiver.  Along  the  coast  it  thrives  in  a  moist  and  frequently 
wet  soil,  mixed  with  Shortleaf  and  Coastbelt  Pines  and 
broadleaf  trees;  but  in  northern  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Ten- 
nessee, and  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  it  grows  well 
on  rolling  and  quite  dry  uplands,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  it  thrives  in  a  moist  soil  if  the  ground  is  not  subject  to 
overflow. 

It  is  claimed  that  several  varieties  exist,  distinguished 
mainly  by  thickness  of  sapwood,  coarseness  of  grain,  and 
rapidity  of  growth.  All  this  may  come,  and  doubtless 
does,  from  conditions  of  soil  and  location.  It  is  less  light- 


162  THE  PINES 

demanding  than  any  of  the  Pines  growing  with  it,  which  fea- 
ture greatly  aids  in  giving  it  the  victory  in  the  struggle  for 
existence.  Yet,  like  all  the  other  Pines,  it  must  have  light, 
and  when  grown  in  dense  stands  of  its  own  or  other  species 
of  trees,  its  lower  limbs  will  die  and  drop  off  and  the  result 
is  a  slim,  moderately  tapering  stem,  with  thick,  crooked, 
and  forked  branches,  that  form  a  rounded  crown  when 
lifted  above  its  competitors  for  light.  The  tree  grows  to  a 
height  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  with  a  diame- 
ter of  five  feet,  but  these  dimensions  are  very  rare.  The 
size  most  generally  cut  runs  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet  high  with  a  diameter  of  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  breast 
high,  and  a  stem  suitable  for  lumber  of  forty  to  sixty  feet 
in  height. 

It  is  a  very  rapid  grower  until  after  seventy  or  eighty 
years  of  age.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  to  find  young  trees 
ten  feet  high  when  only  six  or  seven  years  old,  and  at  ten 
years  of  age  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  seven 
or  eight  inches  two  feet  from  the  ground.  In  young  trees 
the  leaves  are  but  little  longer  than  those  of  the  Shortleaf, 
which  has  contributed  much  towards  confounding  it  with 
that  tree.  In  mature  trees  the  leaves  may  be  eight  or  nine 
inches  long,  with  three  in  a  sheath. 

The  wood  is  somewhat  variable,  owing  to  its  wide  range, 
but  in  general  it  is  brittle,  weak,  rather  hard,  coarse-grained, 
of  about  the  same  weight  as  that  of  Shortleaf,  not  durable, 
and  with  a  marked  difference  between  spring  and  summer 
wood,  both  in  color  and  hardness.  The  heartwood  is  light 
brown,  with  nearly  white  sapwood  of  unusual  thickness, 
the  latter  frequently  forming  seventy  per  cent  or  even  more 
of  the  cubic  contents  of  the  mature  tree.  The  heartwood 
is  charged  with  considerable  resin  and  the  sapwood  is  well 
filled  with  turpentine  which,  however,  is  thick  and  does  not 
flow  freely.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish,  box  boards  and 
veneers,  general  construction,  and  for  most  purposes  where 
great  strength  or  durability  when  exposed  is  not  required. 
It  must  be  kiln-dried  as  soon  as  sawed  or  "  blueing  "  will 


PITCH  PINE  163 

result.  If  properly  handled,  this  will  not  occur,  nor  will  it 
warp  or  split  when  seasoning. 

It  is  an  early  and  prolific  seeder,  frequently  producing 
fertile  seeds  at  the  age  of  ten  years.  From  that  age  on  it 
can  be  depended  upon  for  a  crop  at  least  every  other  year. 
The  cones  are  longer  and  slimmer  than  those  of  the  Short- 
leaf  Pine,  but  are  seldom  over  three  inches  in  length.  They 
open  slowly  on  ripening,  thus  giving  ample  opportunity 
for  the  winds  to  distribute  the  seed  in  all  directions  from 
the  parent  tree.  It  is  not  unusual  for  cones  to  hold  some 
seeds  until  the  spring  succeeding  their  maturity.  Fertile 
seeds  may  remain  in  cones  adhering  to  the  tree  for  a  full 
year,  which  greatly  aids  natural  reproduction,  as  the  seeds 
are  sure  to  be  widely  scattered. 

Natural  reproduction  can  be  depended  upon  if  proper 
conditions  are  allowed  to  prevail,  and  little  need  be  said 
regarding  artificial  propagation.  The  seedlings  develop  a 
tap-root  from  five  to  seven  or  more  inches  long  the  first 
year,  which  increases  rapidly  in  succeeding  years ;  hence 
transplanting  from  the  nursery  would  probably  be  difficult. 
Only  by  gathering  seeds  and  planting  in  hills  can  any 
practical  aid  be  given,  aside  from  permitting  Nature  to 
carry  on  the  work,  which  she  will  do  if  seed  trees  are  left 
and  she  is  not  interfered  with.  While  not  equal  in  quality 
to  some  of  our  Hard  Pines,  it  possesses  many  valuable  fea- 
tures, and,  therefore,  it  is  highly  important  that,  wherever 
possible,  efforts  should  be  made  to  perpetuate  it  as  an 
economic  forest  tree.  When  full  grown  it  can  endure  forest 
fires  remarkably  well. 

Pitch  Pine  :  Finns  rigida 

If  it  were  to  stand  only  on  its  merits  as  a  lumber-pro- 
ducing tree,  irrespective  of  any  other  redeeming  quality. 
Pitch  Pine  could  not  be  considered  of  sufficient  value  to 
be  classed  among  the  timber  trees  of  our  country.  There 
are  other  species  of  Pine  which  yield  far  better  lumber, 


164  THE  PINES 

grow  faster,  and  are  as  easily  propagated ;  but  there  are 
none  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  which  will  grow  where 
this  can  or  will  so  well  maintain  themselves  against  that  foe 
of  all  trees,  the  forest  fire.  By  its  growth  laud  unfitted  for 
any  other  purpose  can  be  utilized,  the  ground  covered  and 
protected  from  erosion,  and  a  moderate  yield  of  somewhat 
inferior  lumber  produced.  It  is  not  loaded  down  with  a 
multitude  of  names,  but  is  almost  universally  known  by 
the  one  here  given,  although  several  others  have  been  be- 
stowed upon  it.  This  name  was  undoubtedly  hit  upon  be- 
cause the  wood  contains  more  resin  than  any  of  its  northern 
associates.  Its  botanical  appellation  —  rigida  —  refers  to 
the  rigid  character  of  its  leaves. 

The  natural  range  of  the  Pitch  Pine  is  not  very  extended, 
reaching  from  Maine  to  Ohio  along  our  northern  border, 
and  south  to  northern  Georgia  and  eastern  Tennessee.  Its 
best  development  is  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  Massa- 
chusetts southward  to  North  Carolina.  It  was  once  found 
in  pure  stands  in  a  large  part  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
and  eastern  Maryland.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to  sandy, 
sterile  plains,  dry,  gravelly,  stony  uplands,  and  bleak  and 
barren  wind-swept  ridges  and  mountain-tops,  where  what 
little  soil  may  there  be  found  is  quickly  dried  out  by  per- 
sistent winds.  Notwithstanding  that  it  will  grow  to  best 
advantage  in  the  localities  named,  it  is  not  averse  to  creep- 
ing into  moist  ground. 

It  seldom  grows  to  a  height  of  seventy-five  feet  or  a 
diameter  of  thirty  inches,  although  records  of  a  height  of 
ninety  feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  feet  are  not  lacking.  In  its 
youth  the  tree  is  quite  symmetrical,  but  in  its  old  age  it  is 
anything  but  graceful  in  form.  Its  crown  is  then  unbalanced 
with  branched,  distorted,  and  specialized  limbs.  It  is  a  light- 
demanding  tree,  but  unless  crowded  it  will  be  clothed  with 
limbs  from  near  the  ground  up.  Its  ability  to  withstand 
fire  is  very  great.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  bark  of  the 
stems  blackened  by  fire  for  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the 
ground  and  the  tree's  crown  showing  little  lack  of  vigor, 


PITCH  PINE  166 

the  thick  bark  having  served  as  a  complete  protection 
to  it. 

The  heartwood  is  of  a  light  reddish-brown  color,  some- 
times heavily  charged  with  resin,  soft,  brittle,  coarse- 
grained, and  that  part  filled  with  resin  moderately  durable, 
with  a  thick,  yellowish  sapwood — the  latter  frequently 
amounting  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  mature  tree  — 
which  rapidly  decays  when  exposed.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  spring  and  summer  wood  both  in 
color  and  hardness.  The  wood  is  used  for  rough  construc- 
tion, box  boards,  and  the  like,  but,  because  of  large  knots, 
is  not  often  suitable  for  finer  work  or  where  great  strength 
is  required.  Trees  of  all  dimensions,  from  six  up  to  eigh- 
teen inches,  are  shipped  long  distances  and  used  for  mine 
props  in  Pennsylvania  coal  mines.  The  wood  is  also  used 
for  pulp,  being  superior  to  White  Pine  for  that,  and,  when 
charcoal  iron  furnaces  were  in  existence,  for  charcoal.  From 
the  undecayed  heartwood  found  in  the  forests  large  quan- 
tities of  tar  were  made  in  rude  clay  pits  before  the  devel- 
opment of  the  "naval  stores"  industry  in  the  Southern 
States. 

The  Pitch  Pine  is  an  early  and  persistent  seed-bearer, 
often  fruiting  at  the  age  of  eight  years.  The  cones  are 
small  and  hang  on  the  trees  for  several  years.  They  open 
slowly  when  ripe.  The  seeds  are  small, —  75,000  in  a 
pound,  —  with  proportionally  large  wings,  which  further 
their  even  and  ample  distribution.  There  are  three  sharp- 
pointed  stiff  leaves  in  a  sheath.  It  grows  slowly  for  the 
first  three  to  five  years,  but  when  fairly  established  it 
shoots  up  rapidly,  and  on  moderately  fertile  soil  keeps  up 
a  good  growth  until  old  age  sets  in.  It  seldom  lives  more 
than  one  hundred  years. 

Artificial  aid  in  reforestation  can  be  successful  only  by 
gathering  seed  and  planting,  where  the  trees  are  to  grow 
in  the  forest,  for  the  dry  character  of  the  soil  where  Pitch 
Pine  should  be  planted  will  preclude  the  possibility  of  suc- 
cessful transplanting  from  the  nursery.  After  a  fire  has 


166  THE  PINES 

run  over  the  land,  in  late  fall  or  early  spring,  seeds  may 
be  planted  in  hills  and  the  seedlings  will  generally  hold 
their  own  with  such  stuff  as  might  come  up,  and  after  a 
few  years  will  take  possession  of  the  ground.  In  gather- 
ing seed,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  mistake  Scrub  Pine 
—  Pinus  virginiana,  sometimes  called  Jersey  Pine  —  for 
Pitch  Pine.  That  tree  seldom  grows  over  fifty  feet  in  height 
or  over  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  leaves  of  Scrub 
Pine  are  from  an  inch  and  one  half  to  three  inches  in 
length,  while  Pitch  Pine  leaves  are  from  three  to  five 
inches  long,  are  invariably  three  in  a  sheath,  stand  out  at 
nearly  right  angles  from  the  branches,  and  are  rigid  and 
stiff. 

Red  Pine  :  Norway  Pine  :  Pimis  resinosa 

As  with  nearly  all  valuable  timber  trees,  this  one  is  known 
by  a  variety  of  names.  Probably  the  most  common  one  is 
Norway  Pine,  a  name  wholly  out  of  place,  for  it  is  not  a 
foreigner  but  a  native  of  North  America.^  The  next  most 
common  is  Red  Pine;  and  this  is  strictly  accurate,  for  the 
bark  of  the  tree  is  of  a  reddish  hue,  its  heartwood  of  a  pale 
red  color,  and  the  sometimes  profuse  staminate  blossoms 
are  a  dark  red.  It  is  by  this  name  that  the  tree  should  be 
known.  Unfortunately,  too,  its  technical  name  is  inappro- 
priate. Pinus  resinosa  means  resin  pine,  and  why  Red  Pine 
should  have  been  given  that  name,  when  its  wood  contains 
less  resin  than  any  other  hard  timber  pine,  is  very  strange. 
It  suffers  further  in  being  wrongly  named  by  some  man- 
ufacturers and  dealers,  who  occasionally  mix  lumber  cut 
from  it  with  White  Pine  and  palm  it  off  as  such  to  custom- 
ers who  do  not  know  the  difference. 

This  valuable  timber  tree  is  rapidly  disappearing  from 

^  It  is  related  that  the  name  "  Norway  Pine  "  was  given  to  the  tree  by  a, 
Spanish  captain,  who  first  found  it.  Its  close  resemblance  to  pines  he  had 
seen  in  Norway  caused  him  to  suppose  it  identical  with  such  as  he  had  seen 
growing  there,  which  were,  no  doubt,  Scotch  Pine  {Pinus  sylvestris). 


RED  PINE  167 

the  United  States.  Before  its  great  destruction  by  the 
lumberman's  axe  and  succeeding  fires,  it  ranged  along  our 
northern  borders  from  Maine  to  western  Minnesota,  and 
south  to  southern  Pennsylvania,  southern  Michigan,  south- 
ern and  central  Wisconsin,  and  southern  and  northwest- 
ern Minnesota.  Its  natural  habitat  is  essentially  a  northern 
one,  but  it  is  more  than  pi'obable  that  it  will  thrive  on  the 
mountain  ranges  from  Pennsylvania  to  northern  Georgia 
and  Alabama.  It  was  not  generally  found  in  pure  stands, 
but  the  late  Professor  Samuel  B.  Green,  of  the  University 
of  Minnesota,  recently  wrote  me  that  he  had  seen  tracts  of 
it  near  Cass  Lake,  Minnesota,  that  must  have  carried  fully 
fifty  thousand  or  more  board  feet  to  the  acre.  East  of  the 
states  bordering  on  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan  it  is 
much  scattered,  sometimes  mixed  with  White,  Pitch,  and 
Yellow  Pine,  Chestnut,  and  Oak,  and  in  northern  Pennsyl- 
vania, frequently  standing  solitary  and  alone  on  a  bleak, 
exposed  ridge,  far  apart  from  its  kindred  or  other  species 
of  trees.  There  is  a  fine  virgin  grove  of  this  tree  standing 
on  the  Normal  School  grounds  at  Marquette,  Michigan,  as 
shown  opposite  page  6,  illustrating  its  characteristics  of 
growth  where  it  is  largely  in  the  open.  It  will  grow  in  bleak, 
exposed  situations  where  the  soil  is  too  poor  and  dry  for 
White  Pine.  Dry  ridges,  steep  declivities,  mountain-tops, 
and  dry  sandy  plains  are  its  chosen  home,  although  it  will 
grow  on  almost  any  soil  not  too  wet,  as  is  evidenced  where 
it  is  grown  as  an  ornamental  tree,  wherein  it  is  far  superior 
to  nearly  all  other  Pines.  Its  willingness  to  adapt  itself  to 
varied  conditions  adds  much  to  its  value. 

In  early  life  it  assumes  a  decidedly  tapering  form  of  crown, 
much  like  the  Spruces  and  Firs,  but  if  at  all  crowded  it  will 
drop  its  lower  limbs  and  shoot  upward  with  a  tall,  slim, 
slightly  tapering  stem,  clean  of  limbs  for  full  half  its  height, 
with  its  lowest  limbs  still  dying  if  lacking  light.  None  of 
its  limbs  are  specialized  or  of  great  length.  When  placed 
with  White  Pine,  in  soil  and  situation  suited  to  that  tree, 
it  will  equal  it  in  growth  for  the  first  thirty  or  forty  years 


168  THE   PINES 

of  its  life,  while  in  sterile  soil  and  on  dry  and  bleak  sit- 
uations it  will  outgrow  it  at  every  period  of  its  life  until  it 
reaches  a  diameter  of  about  two  feet,  when  its  rapidity  of 
growth  is  much  lessened.  It  is  most  commonly  found  run- 
ning from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter  and  from 
seventy-five  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  although  it  has  been 
known  to  attain  a  diameter  of  three  feet  and  a  height  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet. 

The  wood  is  strong,  very  close-grained,  hard,  a  trifle 
heavier  than  White  Pine  when  seasoned,  and  decidedly  so 
when  green,  —  for  a  newly  cut  log  will  sink,  —  elastic,  but 
not  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The  heartwood  is 
pale  red,  with  thin  yellow  sapwood  sometimes  nearly  white. 
The  medullary  rays  are  quite  conspicuous,  more  so  than  in 
any  other  Pine.  The  summer  wood  is  slightly  darker  colored 
than  the  spring  wood  and  perceptibly  harder.  It  is  used 
for  general  construction  and  for  nearly  all  purposes  where 
White  Pine  can  be  used,  although  because  of  its  hardness, 
not  as  well  suited  for  doors,  sash,  and  the  like.  It  is  supe- 
rior to  White  Pine  for  flooring,  and,  among  the  Pines  only 
Longleaf  and  Cuban  surpass  it  for  that  purpose. 

The  leaves  are  dark  green,  from  five  to  six  inches  long, 
quite  flexible,  and  with  but  two  in  a  sheath.  In  vigorous 
growth  this  sheath  is  frequently  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
long.  It  blooms  in  early  spring,  and  the  cones  are  ripe  and 
may  be  gathered  the  last  of  August  or  early  September  of 
the  following  year.  It  will  frequently  begin  to  bear  seed 
when  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  old,  but  it  is  not  a  prolific 
seed-bearer  at  best,  and  the  fact  that  the  cones  are  nearly  all 
on  the  very  topmost  branches  renders  collecting  them  very 
difficult.  There  is  more  difficulty  in  securing  a  supply  of 
seeds  of  this  Pine  than  of  any  other  eastern  species,  and 
the  price  is  correspondingly  high.  The  tree  is  remark- 
ably well  adapted  to  natural  regeneration.  The  seeds  are 
not  as  large  as  those  of  the  White  Pine,  but  the  wing  is 
larger,  which  allows  the  wind  to  carry  them  to  a  great  dis- 
tance. Neither  do  the  seeds  all  drop  out  as  soon  as  ripe, 


WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE  169 

some  remaining  in  the  cones  until  midwinter.  This  pro- 
longed falling  of  the  seed  gives  the  varying  winds  an  op- 
portunity to  scatter  them  in  all  directions  from  the  parent 
tree.  This  result  is  strikingly  shown  where  Red  and  White 
Pine  have  occupied  the  same  ground  and  seed  trees  have 
been  left,  the  Red  always  preempting  the  ground  with  its 
seedlings,  for  the  White  Pine  drops  its  seeds  as  soon  as 
ripe  and  they  are  scattered  only  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
wind  may  be  blowing  at  the  time.  But  if  natural  reproduc- 
tion cannot  take  place  through  want  of  seed  trees,  then 
the  seed  should  be  gathered  and  treated  in  all  respects  as 
directed  for  White  Pine.  The  tree  has  a  tendency  to  de- 
velop a  tap-root,  but  if  the  soil  in  which  the  plants  are 
grown  in  the  nursery  is  moist,  that  tendency  does  not  man- 
ifest itself  very  strongly  for  two  or  three  years,  and  they  can 
be  successfully  grown  and  transplanted.  Still,  it  may  prove 
far  the  better  way  to  plant  the  seed.  It  certainly  will  be 
if  dry,  exposed,  sterile  ground  is  chosen  for  the  plantation. 
This  is  especially  so  if  the  ground  proves  to  be  stony  and 
with  little  good  soil  in  which  to  set  the  plants.  The  distances 
apart  that  the  seed  should  be  planted  or  the  trees  set  should 
be  the  same  as  for  White  Pine.  As  White  Pine  is  superior 
to  it,  all  things  considered,  it  would  not  be  best  to  plant  it 
where  that  tree  will  flourish,  but  the  possibilities  of  the  tree 
are  great  in  certain  sections  where  other  valuable  species 
will  not  thrive. 

Western  Yellow  Pine  :  Pinus  ponderosa 

This  important  tree  is  loaded  down  with  no  less  than 
fourteen  local  names.  It  is  called  Yellow  Pine  in  seven  of 
the  states  where  it  is  most  abundant,  and  Bull  Pine  in  five. 
Why  this  latter  name  should  be  applied  to  any  Pine  —  and 
it  is  to  no  less  than  seven  different  species  —  is  past  com- 
prehension. To  call  it  Yellow  Pine  is  in  entire  harmony 
with  the  character  of  the  tree  and  is  in  the  line  of  accur- 
acy. In  the  eastern  lumber  trade  it  is  very  properly  des- 


170  THE  PINES 

ignated  Western  Yellow  Pine,  and  this  appellation  should 
prevail,  that  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Yellow  Pines 
of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  Its  botanical  designa- 
tion, Pinus  ponderosa,  is  eminently  fitting,  for  it  is  truly 
a  ponderous  Pine,  and  is  overmatched  by  only  one  other  of 
the  Pine  family,  the  great  Sugar  Pine.  While  it  is  botan- 
ically  classed  among  the  Hard  Pines,  the  lumber  cut  from 
it  stands  intermediate  in  character  between  that  from  the 
Hard  Pines  of  the  Southern  States  and  the  White  Pines 
already  described ;  and,  therefore,  there  is  ample  reason 
for  bestowing  such  a  name  as  will  convey  to  the  dealer  and 
consumer  a  truthful  idea  of  its  character.  It  should  never 
be  palmed  off  as  a  soft  or  White  Pine,  nor  for  a  hard,  re- 
sinous Southern  Yellow  Pine.  It  has  enough  good  qual- 
ities to  enable  it  to  stand  as  a  class  by  itself. 

It  has  a  wide  range  in  the  United  States,  extending  from 
the  Canadian  line  southward  to  Lower  California  and  from 
the  Great  Plains  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  East  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  it  takes  on  a  somewhat  modified 
form  and  is  botanically  known  as  Pinus  ponderosa  scop- 
ulorvm;  and  on  the  mountains  from  southern  Oregon  to 
Lower  California  there  is  another  near  relative  known  as 
Jeffrey  Pine  {Pinus  jejfreyi~).  These  two  so  closely  re- 
semble the  Western  Yellow  Pine,  in  character  and  habit 
of  growth,  and  in  quality  of  lumber  cut  from  each,  that  they 
will  here  be  considered  as  practically  identical.^ 

It  is  not  alone  a  giant  among  the  Pines,  but  also  among 
nearly  all  other  trees.  It  is  known  to  have  reached  a  height 
of  two  hundred  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  eight  feet,  and  it 
is  claimed  that  trees  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  and 
twelve  feet  in  diameter  have  been  seen,  but  such  must  be 
very  rare.  That  it  may  reach  a  great  size  is  certain,  for,  in 

^  "  Jeffrey  Pine  is  scarcely  less  magnificent  in  size  than  its  associate,  the 
Western  Yellow  Pine.  Some  specialists  consider  it  a  variety  of  Pinus  ponde- 
rosa, which  it  resembles  so  closely  in  its  habits  and  soil  and  climatic  require- 
ments that  from  the  forester's  point  of  view  there  appears  to  be  no  pract- 
ical reason  for  disting^uishing  the  two."  —  George  B.  Sudworth,  in  "  Forest 
Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope,"  page  47,  United  States  Forest  Service,  1908. 


WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE  171 

favored  situations,  it  grows  rapidly  and  uniformly  and  lives 
to  the  age  of  five  hundred  years.  It  grows  from  near  sea 
level  to  7000  feet  above.  It  may  be  found  growing  on  the 
top  of  dry  ridges,  on  mountain  slopes,  on  high  mesas, 
in  dry  valleys,  and  in  canyons.  It  thrives  well  in  volcanic 
ashes,  as  will  be  seen  around  the  base  of  Mount  Shasta, 
on  the  headwaters  of  McCloud  and  Klamath  rivers,  and 
in  the  glacial  moraines  and  drifts  throughout  the  great 
mountain  regions ;  but  insists  on  a  well-drained  soil,  as  it 
requires  little  soil  moisture,  apparently  less  than  any  other 
of  our  valuable  timber  Pines.  It  is  very  variable  in  char- 
acter and  size  and  in  quality  of  product,  which  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  when  the  diversities  of  climate,  soil,  and  ele- 
vation in  which  it  grows  are  considered.  It  is  deep-rooted 
and  can  withstand  the  gales  that  sweep  the  sides  and  tops 
of  the  ridges  and  scour  the  valleys  where  it  grows. 

It  Is  essentially  a  light-demanding  tree.  It  insists  on  this 
during  its  whole  life,  but  most  after  the  age  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  years.  Probably  not  to  exceed  fifty  trees  to  the 
acre  could  be  grown  to  full  maturity.  The  crowns  of  mature 
trees  do  not  frequently  touch  each  other  or  those  of  other 
species.  Like  most  other  trees  it  sends  out  limbs  low  down 
in  early  life,  and  if  continually  in  the  open  these  branches 
persist  for  the  full  life  of  the  tree  and  give  it  a  low  crown ; 
but  if  grown  in  a  close  stand  it  will  throw  up  a  tall,  straight, 
slightly  tapering,  massive  stem,  clean  of  limbs  for  nearly 
or  quite  one  half  its  entire  height.  Under  such  conditions 
it  will  form  an  open  crown,  somewhat  columnar,  with 
specialized  limbs  which  turn  upward  at  their  extremities. 
Frequently  one  or  more  large  limbs  may  be  thrown  out, 
and  above  that  point  an  open,  clean  stem  is  seen  for  twenty 
or  more  feet  before  other  limbs  are  formed. 

The  bark  on  mature  trees  may  reach  a  thickness  of  four 
inches.  It  Is  deeply  furrowed  and  of  a  cinnamon-brown 
color.  In  early  life  it  Is  so  thin  that  fire  works  serious 
havoc,  but  the  mature  trees  can  endure  a  moderate  ground 
fire  and  the  foliage  is  so  far  above  that  the  trees  escape 


172  THE  PINES 

serious  injury.  Western  Yellow  Pine  is  frequently  found 
in  pure  stands,  but  it  tolerates  other  species  for  neighbors 
if  not  too  close.  The  extended  area  of  its  natural  habitat 
makes  it  one  of  the  most  important  trees  of  the  great  West. 
The  leaves  are  borne  in  heavy,  brush-like  clusters  at  the 
ends  of  the  bare  branches,  and  are  deep  yellow-green,  gen- 
erally three  in  a  sheath,  but  sometimes  two,  four,  and  even 
five.  They  vary  from  five  to  eleven  inches  in  length  and  re- 
main on  the  tree  three  or  four  years  or  more — Professor 
Sargent  says  four  to  nine. 

The  heartwood  varies  greatly  in  color  as  well  as  in  other 
economic  features.  It  may  be  found  from  a  pale  lemon- 
yellow  to  an  orange-brown,  and,  while  it  is  usually  of  heavy 
weight,  wood  may  be  found  fully  five  or  even  ten  per  cent 
lighter.  It  is  sometimes  so  light  and  free  from  resin  that  it 
is  sold  as  White  Pine  and  provides  a  reasonably  fair  sub- 
stitute. The  sapwood  is  nearly  white  and  of  varying  thick- 
ness. Although  not  strictly  applicable  to  all  cases  —  owing 
to  variability  —  it  may  be  said  of  the  wood  that  it  is  gen- 
erally heavy,  hard,  fairly  strong,  brittle,  and  fine-grained, 
but  not  durable,  although  all  these  features  may  be  differ- 
ent through  varying  conditions  of  climate  and  soil.  There  is 
some  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood,  but  gen- 
erally not  enough  to  interfere  seriously  with  easy  working. 
The  medullary  rays  are  somewhat  numerous,  but  not  at  all 
conspicuous.  It  is  used  for  heavy  construction  work,  rail- 
road ties,  telegraph  poles,  mine  timbers,  and  for  about  all 
purposes  to  which  a  good,  not  very  strong,  but  moderately 
hard  Pine  can  be  put. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  bearing  cones  nearly  every  year, 
and  an  ample  yield  may  be  expected  about  every  four 
years.  Like  most  other  Pines,  it  does  not  produce  many 
fertile  seeds  before  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  of  age.  After 
that  its  seeds  are  unusually  fertile.  The  seed  is  not  much 
larger  than  that  of  White  Pine,  but  with  a  broader  wing, 
which  permits  its  being  blown  to  a  great  distance.  The 
cones  open  early  in  August  of  the  second  year  and  are  vari- 


LODGEPOLE  PINE  173 

able  in  size  and  color.  Squirrels  and  birds  consume  large 
quantities,  but  in  spite  of  that  drain  upon  the  supply,  natu- 
ral reproduction  takes  place  readily  and  can  be  largely  re- 
lied on  if  any  reasonable  care  be  taken  to  promote  it.  Mr. 
George  B.  Sudworth,  of  the  Forest  Service,  estimates  that 
a  single  tree  will  naturally  reseed  a  quarter  of  an  acre  in  a 
year.  It  is  evident  that  planting  seeds,  where  natural  refor- 
estation may  fail  for  any  reason,  will  be  entirely  successful, 
and  that  growing  plants  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting 
them  into  the  forest  would  not  be  advisable,  owing,  in  part, 
to  the  tap-root  they  have  and  to  the  great  loss  which  must 
inevitably  ensue  through  lack  of  rainfall  when  the  little  re- 
cently planted  trees  would  most  need  it.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  grow  the  tree  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  for  ornamental  purposes,  but  with  such  poor  success 
that  the  attempt  to  propagate  it  for  forest  purposes  should 
be  undertaken  on  a  very  limited  scale,  until  it  is  shown  to 
be  more  frequently  successful  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It 
grows  fairly  well  in  Europe  and  is  being  quite  extensively 
planted  there.  The  species  jefreyi  seems  to  do  better  than 
ponderosa  in  our  eastern  climate,  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  other  variety — ponderosa  scopidorum  —  may  do  well 
on  high  and  exposed  elevations.  It  certainly  would  be  well 
to  experiment  in  that  direction,  for  it  might  serve  where 
none  of  our  eastern  Pines  will  flourish. 

LoDGEPOLE  Pine  :  Pinus  murrayana 

This  tree  is  generally  known  by  the  common  name  here 
given.  There  are  several  other  local  names,  but  none  so 
appropriate.  The  appellation  "  Lodgepole  "  arises  from  its 
characteristic  habit,  when  in  dense  stands,  of  growing  tall, 
smooth,  and  straight,  but  with  a  small  stem,  thus  fitting  it 
for  lodge-  or  tent-poles.  None  of  our  western  Pines  have  a 
wider  natural  range,  nor  are  any  of  more  diversified  habits 
of  growth.  This  wide  diversion  of  habitat  and  character 
has  led  to  much  confusion,  and  to  the  claim  that  there  are 


174  THE  PINES 

several  species  quite  similar  ;  but  such  a  contention  cannot 
be  accepted.  Mr.  George  B.  Sudworth,  United  States  For- 
est Service  dendrologist, ^  declares  that  "the  reproductive 
organs  of  the  supposedly  different  trees  are  essentially  the 
same.  With  no  characters  found  in  these  organs  to  warrant 
a  distinction  of  species,  the  other  so-called  distinctions  de- 
pended upon  are  believed  to  be  unworthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration." 

Its  natural  range  in  the  United  States  —  it  is  also  found 
in  Canada  and  Alaska  —  reaches  from  the  Canadian  line 
to  southern  California,  and,  intermittently  where  trees  grow, 
from  the  foot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Location,  climate,  soil,  all  appear  to 
have  much  to  do  with  its  growth,  character,  and  usefulness. 
It  may  be  found  on  elevations  from  sea  level  to  11,000 
feet  above.  On  the  Pacific  Slope  it  is  a  low  tree,  and 
when  in  the  open  forms  a  dense  pyramidal  crown,  with 
many-forked  branches  from  the  ground  up,  and  is  of  no 
great  commercial  value.  When  grown  in  dense  stands  in 
its  eastern  habitat,  it  has  a  tall,  clean,  slender  stem,  with 
a  rounded,  short,  and  small-branched  crown,  sometimes  at- 
taining dimensions  suitable  for  saw  timber,  but  is  usually 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  In  some  regions  it 
grows  larger,  reaching  a  height  of  one  hundred  feet  and 
a  diameter  of  even  three  feet.  The  author  has  seen  many 
dense  groves  in  the  Klamath  and  Mount  Shasta  region 
and  but  few  tr^o?  were  found  over  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
and  seldom  were  any  seen  as  large  as  that.  Where  densely 
grown  they  are  free  of  large  limbs  for  more  than  two  thirds 
of  their  height. 

The  wood  is  soft,  variable  in  grain,  fine  in  dense  stands, 
and  moderately  coarse  when  grown  in  the  open.  On  the 
Pacific  Slope  the  wood  is  of  a  reddish  brown,  but  in  the 
eastern  ranges  it  is  a  yellowish  brown.  The  eastern  wood 
is  the  lightest,  has  less  resin,  is  straighter-grained  than  the 
western,  and  easily  worked.  It  is  used  for  general  con- 
^  Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  page  49. 


SCOTCH  PINE  175 

structlon  when  large  enough  for  the  saw,  and  for  all  pur- 
poses to  which  small,  straight,  and  not  very  strong  wood 
can  be  put.  Growing  as  widely  as  it  does,  Lodgepole  Pine 
is  of  much  commercial  value  especially  in  regions  where 
nothing  better  can  be  found,  and  fortunately,  it  is  sold 
under  its  true  name. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  but  may  not  open  its  cones  for 
years  unless  the  trees  are  killed  by  fire.  When  that  occurs 
natural  reproduction  will  take  place  to  a  greater  extent 
than  with  almost  any  other  tree,  but  it  will  not  so  happen 
when  the  trees  are  otherwise  destroyed.  It  is  practically 
the  only  species  where  reproduction  mainly  depends  upon 
the  loss  by  fire  of  the  parent  seed-producing  tree.  The 
seeds  can  endure  considerable  heat,  and  this  heat  seems 
essential  to  their  release  from  the  cones  and  probably  aids 
in  their  germination.  It  bears  seeds  when  quite  young,  and 
if  properly  cared  for,  and  the  ground  burned  at  the  right 
time,  natural  reproduction  will  usually  be  complete.  As  it 
is  emphatically  a  light-demanding  tree,  it  must  be  grown 
in  close  stands  to  be  of  commercial  value.  "When  it  attains 
its  proper  height,  growth  thinning  would  be  advantageous. 
It  is  not  known  that  any  attempt  at  artificial  reproduction 
has  been  made.  Where  clean  cutting  has  taken  place,  re- 
generation does  not  occur  to  such  an  extent  as  would  be 
necessary  to  produce  a  stand  sujfficiently  dense ;  and  such 
trees  as  may  be  left  for  any  cause  are  soon  blown  down  or 
die  from  changed  surroundings.  Gathering  and  heating  the 
cones  to  obtain  the  seed,  and  then  planting  them,  or  burn- 
ing the  tract  before  cutting,  must  take  place  to  insure  sat- 
isfactory reproduction. 

Scotch  Pine  :  Pinus  sylvestris 

This  foreigner  comes  to  us  with  high  recommendations 
from  the  regions  of  its  natural  as  well  as  its  adopted  home 
abroad.  It  is  widely  distributed  throughout  Europe  and 
northern  Asia,  and  is  a  very  important  timber  tree  on  the 


176  THE  PINES 

former  continent.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  hard  Pines,  al- 
though not  as  highly  charged  with  resin  as  many  of  them 
are.  In  its  home  it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  with  a  diameter 
of  four  or  five  feet,  and  when  grown  in  the  forest  may  be 
clean  of  limbs  for  one  third  to  one  half  its  height.  In  some 
respects  it  has  the  characteristics  of  our  Norway  Pine,  but 
is  less  liable  to  drop  its  lower  limbs  when  growing  either 
in  an  open  or  in  a  dense  stand.  It  is  of  ironclad  hardiness 
and  makes  moderate  demands  upon  the  soil  for  mineral 
food,  but  prefers  that  of  fair  fertility  with  a  well-drained 
subsoil.  As  it  has  not  been  grown  to  maturity  for  timber 
in  this  country,  we  know  comparatively  little  about  its 
economic  value.  Except  in  some  localities  in  the  Western 
States  it  has  been  planted  for  ornamental  purposes  only, 
and  experience  in  that  direction  does  not  give  promise  of 
good  results  when  attempts  shall  be  made  to  grow  it  for 
lumber.  It  appears  to  grow  well  for  twenty  to  twenty-five 
years  and  then  shows  signs  of  weakened  vitality.  Some 
groves  planted  for  forest  purposes  in  a  western  state  have 
a  large  number  of  crooked  and  distorted  trees.  This  may 
come  from  some  injury  or  defect  in  the  "  leader,"  although 
crooks  appear  between  the  annual  whorls  of  limbs ;  or  it 
may  come  from  improperly  selected  seed,^  for  it  is  claimed 
that  seed  from  abroad  is  collected  from  dwarfed  and  de- 
fective trees  because  it  can  be  more  easily  gathered  from 
such.  This  may  be  so,  and  if  it  is  there  is  a  chance,  through 
proper  selection  of  seed,  for  the  tree  to  be  as  valuable  here 
as  abroad. 

In  Europe  the  wood  is  strong,  elastic,  close-grained,  not 
difficult  to  work,  and  in  appearance  somewhat  resembles 
our  Norway  Pine.  It  is  not  durable  when  placed  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  a  trifle  resinous. 
It  takes  paint  well,  is  used  for  nearly  all  building  purposes, 

^  "  Scotch  Pine  in  the  Baltic  provinces  invariably  has  straighter  trunks 
and  yields  wood  of  a  higher  quality  than  the  Scotch  Pine  of  central  Ger- 
many."—  Raphael  Zon,  in  Forest  Quarterly,  vol.  ix,  No.  2,  page  217. 


SCOTCH  PINE  IN  DENSE  STAND  ON  CAMPUS,   IOWA   STATE  COLLEGE, 

AMES,    IOWA.     NOTE  CROOKED   STEMS 

Courtesy  of  Iowa  State  Collerje. 


SCOTCH  PINE  177 

and  is  esteemed  a  valuable  wood.  It  furnishes  the  red  and 
yellow  "  deals  "  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  also  chemi- 
cally treated  for  railroad  ties,  and  is  being  planted  by  some 
railroads  in  this  country  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  a  prolific  seed-bearer,  frequently 
producing  seed  every  other  year.  The  seeds  are  small,  run- 
ning from  70,000  to  75,000  to  the  pound,  with  about  fifty 
per  cent  of  fertility.  The  wing  attached  to  the  seed  is  pro- 
portionally larger  than  the  average  conifer,  which  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  natural  seeding,  but  notwithstanding  these  fea- 
tures, so  favorable  to  natural  reproduction,  that  method  of 
propagation  is  not  generally  followed  abroad,  for  the  tree 
is  easily  grown  in  the  nursery  and  bears  transplanting  re- 
markably well.  Plants  may  be  set  out  in  the  forest  when 
two  years  old,  or  may  be  left  in  the  seed-bed  for  another 
year,  but  they  would  best  be  removed  from  there  and  placed 
in  the  transplant  nursery,  there  to  remain  for  two  years, 
when  they  will  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  severe  condi- 
tions in  the  forest.  It  is  a  much  more  rapid  grower  in  early 
life  than  our  White  Pine,  and  seedlings  three  years  old 
generally  range  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  height.  Pro- 
pagation and  planting  in  the  forest  is  carried  on  in  Europe 
substantially  the  same  as  for  White  Pine. 


THE  SPRUCES 

When  all  things  concerning  our  native  Spruces  are 
taken  into  account,  there  will  be  found  but  four  of  the 
seven  species  of  sufficient  economic  importance  to  justify 
consideration ;  and  there  are  certain  features  pertaining  to 
these  four  which  render  questionable  any  effort  at  repro- 
duction, other  than  in  aiding  Nature  by  leaving  a  sufficient 
number  of  seed  trees,  by  planting  seeds  where  seed  trees 
are  absent,  and  by  protecting  from  fires  at  all  times.  But 
the  economic  importance  of  the  four  species,  and  their 
power  to  reproduce  themselves  when  afforded  an  opportun- 
ity, should  impel  a  vigorous  effort  to  bring  about  so  de- 
sirable a  result.  Those  worthy  of  considei-ation  are  Red 
Spruce  {Picea  ruhens');  White  Spruce  {Picea  canadensisy, 
Engelmann  Spruce  {Picea  engebnannV);  and  Tideland 
Spruce  {P'lcea  sltchensis). 

Until  comparatively  recent  times  the  Spruces  were  not 
very  favorably  looked  upon  by  lumbermen  or  consumers, 
and  hence  dealers  and  manufacturers  made  little  effort  to 
put  lumber  cut  from  any  of  them  on  the  market.  The  con- 
stantly decreasing  supply  of  Pine,  however,  caused  more 
attention  to  be  paid  to  other  conifers,  and  it  was  then  dis- 
covered that  for  many  purposes  Spruce  serves  as  well  as 
the  coarser  grades  of  Pine  and  for  some  uses  better.  About 
the  same  time  that  its  good  qualities  as  a  timber  tree  were 
discovered,  it  was  likewise  learned  that  it  was  extremely 
valuable  for  pulp  wood;  that  only  Poplar  —  commonly 
called  Trembling  Aspen — was  superior  to  it  for  that  pur- 
pose. Then  the  destruction  of  the  Spruce  forests  in  the 
eastern  United  States  was  begun  in  good  earnest  and  it  has 
since  been  carried  on  with  accelerating  speed  and  thorough- 
ness; and  unless  something  is  done  to  arrest  that  destruc- 
tion, the  virgin  Spruce  forests  will  disappear  and  the  future 


RED  SPRUCE  179 

supply  of  that  wood  for  pulp  must  come  from  such  second 
growth  as  modern  methods  of  cutting  may  permit  and  from 
Canada's  waning  supply.  The  Spruces  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  are  slow  growers,^  notwithstanding  a  general 
belief  and  frequent  assertion  to  the  contrary,  and  this  is 
especially  so  in  early  life,  and  the  danger  of  exhausting  the 
supply  of  pulp  wood  is  great  and  imminent.  To  depend 
upon  another  country,  and  that  country  with  a  lessening 
supply  to  dispose  of,  is  not  a  satisfactory  condition  of  things 
to  contemplate. 

Although  the  Spruces  are  locally  given  various  and  ab- 
surd names,  lumber  cut  from  both  of  the  eastern  trees  is 
known  in  the  trade  as  "  spruce,"  without  distinction  as  to 
species.  No  material  wrong  can  come  to  the  consumer  from 
this,  as  the  only  essential  difference  lies  in  the  color,  but 
putting  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent  of  "  balsam"  in  a  consign- 
ment is  quite  a  different  proposition. 

Eed  Spruce  :  Plcea  ruhens 

The  natural  range  of  the  Red  Spruce  comprises  a  wedge- 
shaped  region,  with  the  New  England  States  and  New 
York  for  the  wide  end  and  eastern  Tennessee  for  the  apex 
or  sharp  end.  Throughout  its  range  south  of  central  New 
York  it  is  confined  to  elevated  regions,  although  it  is  sel- 
dom found  on  the  very  crests  of  the  mountains.  Its  best 
development  is  to  be  seen  in  its  northern  habitat.  As  it 
requires  a  cool  atmosphere,  the  region  south  of  Virginia 
does  not  produce  as  vigorous  a  growth  as  that  farther  north. 
It  never  attains  a  very  large  size.  Occasionally  trees  are 

^  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Canadian  Forestry  Association,  February, 
1909,  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  speaking  of  the  growth  of  White  Pine,  adds  :  "  The 
Spruce,  a  much  slower  grower,  makes,  under  most  favorable  forest  condi- 
tions, one  inch  in  seven,  or  more  frequently  one  in  nine  years,  which  would 
bring  a  nine-inch  tree  in  the  average  to  one  hundred  years.  But  in  virgin 
forests,  where  competition  among  species  and  individuals  retards  develop- 
ment, one  inch  in  twelve  to  fifteen  years,  and  more,  is  the  usual  rate  of 
growth." 


180  THE  SPRUCES 

found  one  hundred  feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter, 
but  the  average  of  what  are  deemed  mature  trees  is  sel- 
dom above  eighty  feet  in  height  and  twenty  to  thirty  inches 
in  diameter.  North  of  central  New  York,  and  in  the  New 
England  States,  White  Spruce  (Picea  canadensis)  is  gen- 
erally mingled  with  it,  frequently  up  to  forty  or  fifty  per 
cent,  but  White  Spruce  in  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont 
is  confined  to  the  northern  portion  of  those  states.  They 
can  there  be  found  in  pure  or  mixed  stands  on  the  high 
slopes  and  tops  of  the  mountains  as  well  as  in  the  swamps, 
while  on  the  lower  slopes,  ridges,  and  intervales  they  are 
mingled  with  Fir,  Birch,  Beech,  and  Maple.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  they  are  found  growing  in  exposed  situations, 
they  are  not  as  well  calculated  for  such  localities  as  where 
protected  from  strong  winds,  for  they  are  shallow-rooted 
and  liable  to  be  blown  down. 

Like  all  others  of  the  Spruce  family,  the  tree  puts  on 
a  stiff,  formal,  compact,  and  acutely  conical  crown  when 
grown  in  the  open,  and  when  crowded  it  retains  the  same 
spire-like  top  of  green  limbs  above  the  lower  dead  and 
dying  ones.  When  growing  in  the  open,  the  lower  limbs, 
of  which  it  has  a  generous  supply,  remain  alive  for  a  long 
time,  but  when  crowded  they  die  for  want  of  light,  but  do 
not  readily  decay  and  drop  off.  This  retention  of  its  limbs 
causes  knots  in  the  lumber,  but  they  are  generally  small 
and  sound.  The  stem  is  straight,  somewhat  tapering,  and 
free  from  large  limbs,  the  tree  rarely  developing  them. 

The  wood  of  the  Red  Spruce  is  light,  close-grained,  not 
strong,  soft,  with  heartwood  slightly  tinged  with  red,  and 
paler  sapwood,  which  is  usually  of  moderate  thickness,  al- 
though sometimes  two  inches  thick  in  mature  trees.  There 
is  little  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood,  and 
the  medullary  rays  are  small  and  inconspicuous.  It  takes 
glue  and  paint  well.  It  is  largely  manufactured  into  lum- 
ber used  for  general  construction  where  not  exposed.  When 
cut  into  beams  and  posts,  it  is  apt  to  warp  and  twist  in 
seasoning.  Its  greatest  use  is  for  pulp,  and  more  Spruce 


RED  SPRUCE  181 

and  Fir  are  consumed  for  that  purpose  than  all  other  kinds 
of  wood.  The  tree  is  a  free  seeder.  Its  cones  are  borne  on 
the  topmost  branches,  thus  giving  the  winds  an  opportunity 
to  carry  the  seeds  a  great  distance.  Like  other  conifers  the 
seed  has  a  wing,  and  in  this  case  the  wing  is  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  weight  of  the  seed.  The  scales  of  the  cones 
do  not  all  open  at  once,  thus  prolonging  the  period  of  seed- 
sowing.  Natural  regeneration  of  the  Spruces,  and  the  fre- 
quently accompanying  Fir,  can  be  fairly  well  relied  upon 
on  cut-over  lands  where  fire  does  not  succeed  cutting,  but 
where  it  does,  the  chances  for  it  are  slim  indeed.  The  nat- 
ural seed-bed  for  the  eastern  Spruces  is  the  decaying  veg- 
etable matter,  the  rotting  leaves,  twigs,  limbs,  and  trunks 
of  trees, —  the  humus,  — with  underlying  soil.  Unlike  most 
conifers  the  young  trees  do  not  take  kindly  to  mineral  soil 
at  first ;  and  when  that  soil  only  is  offered,  germination  is 
uncertain  and  the  life  of  the  young  tree  doubtful.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  see  vigorous  young  Spruces  growing  on  decay- 
ing logs  in  the  woods,  or  a  belt  of  them  on  the  ground 
where  a  tree  has  decayed  and  spread  itself  on  the  soil. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  even  where  seed  trees  have  es- 
caped the  ravages  of  fire,  natural  reforestation  is  somewhat 
uncertain  at  best,  and  where  fire  has  burned  all  the  humus 
and  killed  all  the  seed  trees,  it  requires  no  argument  to 
demonstrate  that  a  forest  of  like  species  cannot  reasonably 
be  expected  to  grow  there  except  through  planting  seeds 
or  setting  out  young  trees. 

As  already  stated  the  Spruces  are  slow  growers,  and  this 
is  especially  true  of  this  tree  in  its  early  life.  Where  weeds, 
grass,  or  other  stuff  will  be  likely  to  overshadow  them, 
nursery-grown  plants  cannot  be  set  out  until  five  or  six 
years  old,  and  this  will  make  such  propagation  expensive. 
Undoubtedly  the  best  way  to  reforest  burned-over  land 
with  young  Spruce  is  to  plant  seeds,  and  where  no  fire  has 
occurred  and  seed  trees  are  not  numerous,  to  supplement 
the  work  of  the  latter  by  planting.  Young  Eed  Spruce 
plants  are  being  grown  in  some  forest  nurseries,  but  their 


182  THE   SPRUCES 

slow  growth  does  not  indicate  success.  If  plants  are  to  be 
grown  in  a  nursery,  humus  from  the  woods  would  best  be 
compounded  with  the  soil  of  the  seed-bed.  The  young  plants 
should  be  screened  from  the  sun  the  same  as  other  conifers, 
and  substantially  the  same  treatment  be  given  them.  As 
they  are  light-demanding,  close  planting  in  the  forest  will 
cause  their  lower  limbs  to  die  and  the  trees  will  become 
suitable  for  commercial  purposes.  The  cones  should  be 
gathered  and  treated  like  those  of  the  White  Pine. 

White  Spruce  :  Picea  canadensis 

The  White  Spruce  ranges  along  the  northern  border  of 
the  United  States  from  Idaho  to  Maine,  but  not  farther 
south  than  South  Dakota,  southern  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
northern  New  York,  southern  Maine,  and  northern  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont,  growing  along  the  shore  much 
farther  south  than  in  the  interior,  except  on  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  where  it  reaches  northern  Virginia.  Its  extended 
area  in  Canada  has  given  it  its  botanical  name  canaden- 
sis, which  is  entirely  appropriate.  It  constitutes  the  great 
bulk  of  the  forests  of  Alaska  and  northern  Canada,  reach- 
ing far  into  the  Frigid  Zone,  where  it  grows  on  the  tun- 
dras that  are  never  free  from  frost.  It  is  essentially  a  cold- 
climate  tree  and  a  southern  extension  of  its  range  need  never 
be  expected.  Its  best  development  in  the  eastern  United 
States  is  in  northern  New  England,  but  it  seldom  attains 
a  great  size.  Professor  Sargent,^  in  speaking  of  it  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  says :  "  Toward  the  southeastern 
limits  of  its  range  rarely  more  than  sixty  to  seventy  feet 
tall,  with  a  trunk  not  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter."  It 
averages  somewhat  larger  in  Idaho.  It  is  a  slow  grower, 
but  long-lived.  Its  general  characteristics  of  growth  in  the 
Eastern  States  and  the  uses  to  which  the  wood  is  put  are 
so  like  those  of  the  Red  Spruce  that  a  detailed  description 
of  it  need  not  be  given,  except  to  say  that  its  heartwood 
1  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America,  page  42. 


ENGELMANN  SPRUCE  183 

is  light,  not  strong,  light  yellow  in  color,  and  with  scarcely 
distinguishable  sapwood.  In  a  few  years  it  must  produce  a 
large  portion  of  the  wood  cut  for  pulp  in  Canada.  The  tree 
can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  rank,  and,  to  some,  very 
disagreeable  odor  of  its  leaves.  There  is  little  need  of  arti- 
ficial propagation  if  reasonable  care  be  taken  to  keep  out 
fire  and  leave  enough  trees  for  seed. 

Engelmann  Spruce  :  Picea  engelmanni 

Such  lumber  as  is  cut  from  this  tree  and  shipped  East  is 
known  in  the  trade  as  "  Rocky  Mountain  Spruce."  It  dif- 
fers botanically  from  the  eastern  Spruces  and  grows  much 
larger,  yet  the  lumber  cut  from  it  is  very  much  like  that  in 
character  and  can  be  used  for  substantially  the  same  pur- 
poses and  can  be  produced  in  much  larger  dimensions.  Its 
natural  range  south  of  the  Canadian  line  is  along  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Cascade  Range  southward  to  northern 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  at  elevations  from  5000  to  10,000 
feet  above  the  ocean.  On  the  lower  altitudes  it  frequently 
grows  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high  and  three 
feet  in  diameter,  but  on  high  ones  it  is  little  better  than 
a  shrub.  This  produces  great  variation  in  the  character  and 
quality  of  the  lumber  cut  from  it. 

Grown  in  the  open,  it  forms  a  broad-based,  conical  crown, 
with  long,  drooping,  lower  limbs  produced  in  regular  whorls 
spreading  far  out,  and  some  even  resting  on  the  ground.  If 
in  a  dense  stand,  it  sends  up  a  straight,  somewhat  tapering, 
clean  stem,  with  a  very  short,  contracted  crown  of  small 
branches.  It  is  a  slow  growing,  long-lived  tree,  reaching 
an  age  of  five  hundred  years. 

The  wood  is  soft,  light,  compact,  but  not  strong,  close- 
and  straight-grained,  pale  yellow  in  color,  tinged  with  red 
verging  to  reddish  brown,  with  thick  sapwood  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  heartwood,  and  with  little  difference 
between  spring  and  summer  wood.  Its  medullary  rays  are 
more  conspicuous  than  in  any  other  Spruce.  It  is  used  for 


184  THE  SPRUCES 

lumber  for  all  general  purposes  of  construction.  No  inform- 
ation can  be  obtained  concerning  its  fitness  for  pulp,  yet 
there  is  little  doubt  but  that  it  is  suitable,  as  all  Spruces 
thus  far  experimented  with  are.  Its  bark  is  quite  rich  in 
tannin,  but  as  the  bark  does  not  exceed  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  on  adult  trees,  the  yield  will  necessarily 
be  light.  This  thinness  of  its  bark  renders  the  tree  an  easy 
prey  to  forest  fires,  which  are  too  frequently  permitted  to 
spread  over  large  areas  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
regions  where  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  splendid 
trees.  Whether  the  fires  occur  as  "  ground  "  or  "  crown," 
—  the  latter  where  it  leaps  from  the  top  of  one  tree  to 
another  with  the  speed  of  a  race-horse,  consuming  every 
leaf  and  twig,  —  the  trees  are  killed  outright  and  the 
ground  left  naked,  to  be  covered  by  a  growth  of  chapar- 
ral, or,  in  rare  cases,  by  trees  of  other  species. 

The  cones  are  produced  in  great  abundance,  but  are  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  tlie  topmost  branches  of  the  tree. 
They  open  and  release  the  seeds  early  in  October.  The 
seeds  are  small,  with  a  large  wing,  and  can  be  carried  a 
great  distance  by  the  winds.  No  doubt  natural  regeneration 
would  be  ample  if  fires  could  be  kept  out  and  care  taken 
to  leave  a  sufficient  number  of  seed  trees.  Artificial  pro- 
pagation, beyond  planting  seeds  where  the  tree  flourishes 
best,  should  not  be  undertaken  except  in  an  experimental 
way.  However,  it  is  one  of  the  few  western  conifers  that 
shows  something  of  a  readiness  to  grow  elsewhere  than  in 
its  natural  home.  Specimens  of  Engelmann  Spruce  are 
growing  in  the  Eastern  States  and  in  Europe,  giving  some 
promise  of  success,  but  no  information  can  be  obtained  of 
any  attempt  to  grow  it  for  other  than  ornamental  purposes 
except  in  Europe,  and  there  the  planting  of  it  in  the  forest 
has  been  so  recent  that  nothing  definite  can  be  determined. 
It  is  with  this  tree  as  with  nearly.all  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  Slope  trees:  Nature  has  provided  for  their 
abundant  continuance,  and,  if  permitted,  she  will  accom- 
plish it.  The  situation  there  is  not  like  that  east  of   the 


NORWAY  SPRUCE  185 

Mississippi  River.  In  the  high  altitudes  and  on  the  steep 
declivities,  planting  trees  will  not  be  likely  to  prove  success- 
ful because  of  the  comparatively  slight  rainfall,  and  the  only 
aid  that  can  be  given,  aside  from  keeping  out  the  fires  and 
leaving  sufficient  trees  for  seed,  will  be  planting  seeds  where 
the  trees  are  to  grow.  In  the  East  nearly  all  the  seed  trees 
are  gone,  hence  reforestation  cannot  there  take  place  nat- 
urally, but  the  abundant  rains  make  transplanting  in  the 
East  not  only  possible  but  practicable,  as  experiment  shows. 
There  is  no  invariable  rule  to  fit  all  cases.  Our  work  must 
conform  to  surrounding  conditions. 

Norway  Spruce  :  Picea  excelsa 

Here  is  a  foreigner  which  will  undoubtedly  find  a  per- 
manent home  with  us  and  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
list  of  important  timber  trees  of  our  country.  A  strong, 
hardy,  and  rapidly  growing  tree  in  its  native  home  in  cen- 
tral and  northern  Europe,  Norway  Spruce  has  thus  far 
shown  its  ability  to  accept  the  conditions  it  must  meet  over 
a  large  portion  of  our  country.  Although  it  has  been 
planted  here  mainly  as  an  ornamental  tree  and  for  a  wind- 
break, its  vigor,  rapidity  of  growth,  and  freedom  from  dis- 
ease give  proof  that  it  will  do  well  as  a  forest  tree.  In  its 
European  home  it  will,  if  allowed,  reach  a  height  of  one 
hundred  feet  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  and  occasionally 
it  exceeds  these  dimensions  ;  but  it  is  seldom  permitted  to 
grow  beyond  two  feet  in  diameter,  because  compound  in- 
terest on  the  money  invested  in  the  plantation  will,  after 
that  period,  increase  more  rapidly  than  the  increased  value 
through  growth  of  wood  can  bring  to  its  owner. 

It  is  known  to  thrive  throughout  the  area  bounded  on 
the  north  by  a  line  drawn  from  southern  Maine  through 
central  New  York  westward  to  the  Mississippi  River, 
thence  south  to  central  Kansas,  and  from  there  eastward 
through  "Washington,  D.  C,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
grows  quite  well  south  of  the  area  named,  but  coming  from 


186  THE  SPRUCES 

a  colder  climate  it  would  be  best  to  plant  it  in  elevated 
situations  to  insure  success.  Fine  specimens,  however,  may 
be  seen  growing  in  Santa  Cruz,  California.  Throughout 
the  territory  named,  it  grows  as  rapidly  on  fairly  fertile 
soil  as  White  Pine,  but  is  not  equal  to  that  tree  in  adapt- 
ing itself  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  surroundings.  In 
soils  largely  composed  of  vegetable  matter,  as  are  those  of 
some  of  the  Western  States,  it  makes  a  vigorous  growth  at 
first,  but  in  a  few  years  shows  signs  of  decay,  possibly  suf- 
fering for  want  of  certain  mineral  food  or,  more  likely, 
from  over-stimulation.  Neither  can  it  endure  a  very  dry  or 
very  sterile  soil.  In  its  native  home  in  Europe  it  is  found 
growing  in  the  valleys  and  well  up  the  mountain-sides 
towards  the  snow  line,  but  diminishing  in  size  and  vigor  as 
it  ascends.  While  its  ripened  wood  is  of  ironclad  hardi- 
ness, it  occasionally  gets  caught  in  this  country  by  late 
spring  frosts,  as  it  starts  to  grow  early  and  the  new  shoots 
are  tender. 

Like  all  the  Spruces,  its  crown  takes  on  a  pyramidal  form, 
though  not  so  acutely  as  some  of  our  native  Spruces.  If 
grown  in  the  open,  it  throws  out  a  broad  base  at  the  ground, 
yet  its  lines  will  converge  to  a  sharp  apex  at  the  top,  which 
is  surmounted  by  a  naked  leader  of  the  present  year's 
growth.  It  is  much  given  to  developing  limbs  between  the 
annual  whorls.  When  crowded,  its  lower  limbs  die  quickly 
and  drop  off,  as  it  is  light-demanding,  but  if  allowed  to 
become  large  they  will  adhere  and  cause  knotty  lumber; 
hence  crowding  should  begin  early  and  be  kept  up  until 
the  tree  attains  its  height  growth.  When  grown  in  the 
forest,  it  maintains  the  conical  form  of  crown,  but  much 
shortened.  If  properly  crowded  in  early  life,  it  may  de- 
velop a  clean  stem  for  one  half  or  more  of  its  height,  but, 
like  our  native  Spruces,  some  of  the  limbs  next  below  the 
live  ones  will  persist  in  adhering.  The  stem  is  straight  and 
of  slight  and  even  taper,  and  there  are  seldom  any  large 
or  specialized  limbs. 

The  wood  is  close  and  straight-grained  and  strong,  but 


NORWAY  SPRUCE  187 

not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  soil.  The  heartwood  is 
yellowish  white,  varying  somewhat  in  color  with  locality, 
with  thin  and  quite  white  sapwood.  There  is  little  differ- 
ence in  color  or  hardness  between  spring  and  summer 
growth.  Tlie  medullary  rays  are  small  and  inconspicuous. 
It  is  of  medium  hardness  but  rather  easily  worked.  In  gen- 
eral characteristics  the  wood  closely  I'esembles  that  of  our 
native  Red  Spruce,  and  can  be  used  for  the  same  purposes. 
In  Europe  it  is  largely  devoted  to  general  construction, 
where  not  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  for  interior  finish. 
It  is  not  as  heavy  or  as  durable  as  the  European  Larch, 
which  is  there  largely  used  for  outdoor  work.  The  bark  is 
used  in  tanneries  in  Europe,  though  not  heavily  charged 
with  tannin. 

Norway  Spruce  is  a  moderate  but  frequent  seed-bearer, 
the  cones  ripening  the  first  year.  The  percentage  of  fer- 
tility in  the  seeds  is  not  very  high,  but  their  abundance 
compensates  for  that.  It  may  be  grown  by  planting  seeds, 
but  growing  plants  in  a  nursery  is  largely  followed  in 
Europe.  There  is  little  difficulty  in  growing  a  supply  of 
plants  and  the  treatment  in  the  nursery  beds  should  be  the 
same  as  for  White  Pine,  and,  like  that,  it  is  best  to  trans- 
plant them  in  the  nursery  once  before  setting  them  out  in 
the  forest,  as  they  are  rather  slow  growers  for  the  first 
four  or  five  years.  After  that,  they  grow  vigorously,  and 
in  suitable  soils  as  rapidly  as  White  Pine.  It  will,  no 
doubt,  prove  in  some  situations  a  useful  companion  for 
that  tree,  being  one  of  the  very  few  species  which  can  be 
recommended  or  even  tolerated  for  that  purpose.  They 
can  be  set  out  in  alternate  rows  or  alternately  in  each  row. 
If  no  mishap  comes  to  the  Pines,  the  Spruces  can  all  be 
removed  as  thinning  progresses;  but  if  anything  happens 
to  the  Pines,  then  there  will  be  a  stand  of  Spruce ;  or  they 
may  be  allowed  to  grow  together  until  mature,  if  nothing 
happens  to  either.  It  is  more  valuable  for  pulp  than  Pine ; 
in  fact,  is  as  useful  for  that  purpose  as  our  native  Spruces, 
and  it  would  bring  a  greater  revenue  from  thinning  than 


188  THE  SPRUCES 

if  the  stand  were  all  Pine.  It  is  the  easiest  of  all  the  timber 
conifers  to  transplant,  but  the  same  care  should  be  taken 
as  with  other  evergreens  to  shield  the  roots  from  becoming 
dry.  Aside  from  its  value  as  a  timber  tree,  it  would,  no 
doubt,  be  profitable  to  grow  it  as  a  Christmas  tree.  The 
first  thinnings  of  the  plantation  would  certainly  be  mar- 
ketable for  that  purpose.  It  is  not  as  liable  to  attacks  by 
insects  or  diseases  of  any  kind  as  our  native  evergreens, 
but  as  it  starts  early  in  the  spring  late  frosts  may  destroy 
the  leader ;  when  that  occurs  it  at  once  sets  out  to  grow  a 
new  one  by  developing  dormant  buds  which  form  between 
the  whorls  of  each  year's  growth,  or  one  or  more  limbs 
may  attempt  to  assume  that  dignified  position.  In  any  event, 
all  but  one  of  the  volunteer  leaders  should  be  promptly 
cut  back.  If  that  is  not  done,  two  or  more  stems  will  be 
the  result.  Gathering  seeds  and  propagation  should  be 
along  the  same  lines  as  for  White  Pine.  Being  rather 
more  intolerant  of  shade  than  that  tree,  they  need  not  bo 
set  so  close  in  the  forest. 


THE  FIRS 

There  are  nine  species  of  Fir  in  the  United  States,  two 
of  them  east  of  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while 
the  others  belong  mainly  to  the  Pacific  Slope.  A  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the  Firs  is  their  dense,  sharply  coni- 
cal crowns,  composed  of  comparatively  small  limbs  which 
spring  out  from  the  stem  in  whorls,  and  these  develop 
branches  on  each  side  of  the  limb  somewhat  like  vanes  on 
the  central  quill  of  a  feather.  Another  peculiarity  is  that 
the  cones  are  erect  on  the  branches,  wherein  they  differ 
from  the  Pines  and  Spruces.  The  stem  of  the  Fir  is  a  true 
taper  from  the  ground  to  the  very  tip  of  the  leader,  unless 
some  accident  has  robbed  that  feature  of  its  supremacy,  in 
which  case  two  or  more  limbs  will  attempt  the  ascendancy, 
each,  however,  assuming  the  same  tapering  form  that  the 
original  one  adopted.  All  are  light-demanding,  and  unless 
crowded  will  retain  their  limbs. 

The  Eastern  Firs 

The  common  name  given  to  the  two  Eastern  Firs  is 
"  Balsam,"  although  they  are  loaded  down  with  many 
others,  among  which  "  She  "  is  a  prefix,  an  absurdity  which 
is  as  far  from  the  truth  as  it  is  from  good  taste,  as  each 
tree  bears  both  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers.  Botani- 
cally  one  is  called  Ahles  fraserl  and  the  other  Ahies  hal- 
samea,  and  under  these  names  they  will  be  considered. 

Abies  fraseri  is  confined  to  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
from  southwestern  Virginia  to  western  North  Carolina  and 
eastern  Tennessee,  and  at  elevations  above  2700  feet.  It 
is  not  a  large  tree,  seldom  reaching  seventy-five  feet  in 
height  or  a  diameter  of  thirty  inches.  It  is  a  slow  grower, 
and  thus  far  appears  to  be  short-lived  in  cultivation,  but 


190  THE  FIRS 

the  attempt  has  been  made  for  ornamental  purposes  only, 
and  where  the  tree  has  been  entirely  in  the  open.  When 
planted  in  the  forest,  with  a  suitable  forest  floor,  it  will 
doubtless  prove  as  vigorous  as  in  a  virgin  forest,  but  there 
is  little  to  justify  any  effort  at  artificial  cultivation,  for,  by 
proper  treatment,  natural  reproduction  can  be  maintained 
where  desired. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  coarse-grained,  and  weak.  The 
heartwood  is  pale  brown  and  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  It 
is  used  for  general  construction,  box  boards,  and  pulp. 

Abies  balsamea.  This  is  the  common  "  Balsam  "  of  the 
Northern  States,  and  is  confined  to  the  states  bordering  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  to  West  Virginia,  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  New  England.  It  spreads 
over  nearly  all  of  Canada  east  of  the  Kocky  Mountains, 
except  on  the  plains  between  Winnipeg  and  Calgary.  It 
closely  resembles  the  Fraser  Fir  except  that  it  prefers 
moist  bottom  lands,  and  even  swamps.  The  tree  seldom 
reaches  a  height  of  sixty  feet  or  a  diameter  of  thirty  inches. 
It  is  a  slow  grower  at  best,  and  especially  so  in  swamps, 
where  it  may  not  increase  an  inch  in  diameter  in  twenty- 
five  years.  It  may  be  recognized  by  its  "  blisters,"  which 
contain  a  clear  thin  pitch,  commercially  known  as  "  Canada 
Balsam."  These  blisters  are  arranged  horizontally  around 
the  tree  in  irregular  sections  and  just  beneath  the  smooth 
surface  in  the  outer  bark  of  young  and  middle-aged  trees, 
and  on  limbs  of  old  ones,  and  when  pricked  or  cut  open 
the  limpid  pitch  flows  out.  The  Indians  called  the  tree 
"Blisters." 

The  wood  is  soft,  light,  weak,  coarse-grained,  and  decays 
quickly  when  exposed.  It  is  used  for  box  boards,  coarse 
lumber,  and  pulp.  The  heartwood  is  pale  brown,  the 
sapwood  lighter  colored,  and  it  is  seriously  alleged  that  it 
is  sometimes  mingled  with  Spruce  and  sold  as  such. 

Like  the  other  Eastern  species,  it  is  short-lived  when 
planted  in  the  open.  When  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree, 
it  frequently  fails  when  thirty  to  forty  years  of  age,  yet  it 


THE  WESTERN  FIRS  '       191 

is  probable  that  planting  in  a  close  stand  would  make  its 
artificial  cultivation  possible ;  but  there  is  little  reason  for 
undertaking  it.  Natural  regeneration  will  take  place  if  op- 
portunity is  offered,  and  should  be  encouraged  on  ground 
where  it  will  grow  and  where  better  species  will  not. 

The  Western  Firs 

The  Western  Firs  ^  indigenous  to  the  United  States  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  Olympic,  Coast,  and  Cascade  ranges 
of  mountains  in  Washington  and  Oregon  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  northern  California,  although  they  extend  aa 
far  east  along  our  northern  border  as  the  western  slope  of 
the  Continental  Divide  in  Montana.  Of  the  seven  species 
found  there,  six  are  of  sufficient  economic  importance  as 
timber  trees  to  warrant  consideration,  although  nothing 
based  upon  experiment  or  experience  can  be  said  concern- 
ing their  propagation.  It  cannot  be  learned  that  anything 
has  been  done  in  that  line  beyond  what  nurserymen  have 
attempted  in  order  to  determine  their  fitness  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  the  results  of  which,  it  must  be  confessed, 
have  been  anything  but  favorable  for  their  propagation 
east  of  their  natural  range.  Late  reports  show  that  some 
of  them  are  thriving  in  Europe  and  indications  are  that 
they  will  do  well  there  as  forest  trees.  Therefore  all  that 
can  be  said  here  intelligently  respecting  them  must  relate 
to  their  locality,  general  characteristics,  and  value  as  tim- 
ber trees.  Probably  not  until  a  much  greater  exhaustion 
of  all  the  Pacific  Slope  and  Rocky  Mountain  conifers  takes 
place  will  anything  be  done  towards  propagating  or  even 
protecting  these  valuable  species  of  trees. 

^  Until  recently  little  has  been  known  in  the  Eastern  States  concerning 
the  Firs  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  This  lack  of  knowledge  has  now  been  sup- 
plied by  Mr.  George  B.  Sud worth,  dendrologist  of  the  United  States  Forest 
Service,  in  a  publication  entitled  Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  issued 
October  1,  1908,  and  I  am  largely  indebted  to  him  for  what  is  here  said 
concerning  the  Firs  of  that  region,  —  to  which  I  have  added  my  own  ob- 
servations when  studying  the  western  trees.  The  criticisms  of  manufacturers 
and  dealers  are  wholly  mine. 


192  THE  FIRS 

The  important  "Western  Firs  are  Grand  Fir  (^Abies 
grandis),  White  Fir  (^Ahies  concolor)^  Amabilis  Fir  (^Ahies 
amabilis)^  Noble  Fir  (^Ahies  nohilis)^  and  Red  Fir  i^Ahies 
inagnijica.  The  others  are  not  worthy  of  consideration. 
(The  so-called  Douglas  Fir,  an  important  tree,  is  not  really 
a  Fir.) 

Grand  Fir:  Abies  grandis 

This  tree  is  generally  called  White  Fir,  for  the  reason 
that  its  smooth  bark  is  conspicuously  white.  As  there  is 
another  species  to  which  that  name  is  commonly  and  more 
appropriately  applied,  —  Abies  concolor,  —  it  is  proposed 
by  Mr.  Sudworth  to  discard  the  appellation  "  white  "  and 
adopt  that  of  "  grand  "  in  its  place,  making  it  Grand  Fir. 
This  is  certainly  a  more  correct  designation,  for  it  elimin- 
ates the  elements  of  confusion  and  error  and  also  gives  a 
name  suggestive  of  its  character. 

Its  natural  range  is  throughout  a  large  portion  of  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  and  northern  California,  where  it  may  be 
found  along  alluvial  stream-beds,  on  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  from  near  the  coast  up  to  an  elevation  of  7000 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  also  indigenous  to  Idaho  and  Mon- 
tana eastwardly  to  the  western  slope  of  the  Continental 
Divide.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  four  feet  on  bottom  lands,  and 
on  elevated  situations  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  high  and  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in 
diameter.  The  stem  is  straight,  gradually  tapering,  and 
when  in  dense  stands  clean  of  limb  for  fully  one  half  of 
the  total  height  of  the  tree.  It  is  light-demanding,  and  if 
grown  in  the  open  retains  its  limbs  from  the  ground  up. 
It  is  a  fairly  good  seeder,  and  as  the  seeds  are  not  heavy 
and  the  wing  is  large,  they  can  be  blown  a  long  distance. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  moderately  coarse-grained,  and 
straight,  not  durable  when  exposed,  not  strong,  yet  firm 
enough  to  be  useful  for  interior  finish,  box  boards,  and 
many  like  purposes.  In  color  the  heartwood  varies  from 


WHITE  FIR  193 

pale  yellowish  brown  to  pale  brown,  with  thin  lighter- 
colored  sapwood.  It  is  not  known  whether  it  is  suitable  for 
pulp,  but  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  is.  Owing  to 
a  general  prejudice  against  fir  lumber,  —  a  prejudice  which 
naturally  comes  from  its  association  with  Sugar  Pine  and 
Western  Yellow  Pine,  —  it  is  not  extensively  cut,  but  will 
undoubtedly  be  favorably  accepted  in  due  time. 

White  Fir  :  Ahies  concolor 

No  objection  can  be  seriously  urged  against  the  name 
commonly  applied  to  this  tree,  for  the  color  of  its  wood 
fairly  justifies  it,  but  notwithstanding  the  fitness  of  this 
name,  ten  others  have  been  added,  among  which  are  Bast- 
ard Pine  and  Black  Gum.  Its  range  is  from  Oregon  to 
southern  California,  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
to  Colorado  and  Utah.  It  grows  to  its  largest  size  in  the 
coast  region.  It  may  occasionally  be  found  there  two  hun- 
dred feet  high  with  a  diameter  of  six  feet ;  more  commonly 
eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  high  and  twenty  to  thirty  inches 
in  diameter.  The  stem  is  straight  and  tapers  gradually. 
Mature  trees  are  covered  for  some  distance  above  the  ground 
with  rough  bark  from  four  to  six  inches  thick  and  deeply 
furrowed.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  for  the  first  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred years  ;  after  that,  its  growth  is  slow  until  it  reaches 
its  end,  which  is  at  about  three  hundred  years.  A  tree  sixty 
inches  in  diameter  showed  three  hundred  and  seven  annual 
rings.  While  it  requires  less  moisture  in  the  soil  than  the 
other  Firs,  it  still  rejoices  in  a  humid  atmosphere.  It  is 
moderate  in  its  demand  for  light  at  all  periods  of  its  growth. 
Only  Alpine  Fir  and  Engelmann  Spruce  are  less  so  among 
associated  species. 

The  wood  is  very  light,  soft,  coarse-grained,  not  strong, 
but  sufficiently  so  to  be  useful  for  ordinary  purposes ;  is 
easily  worked,  but  is  not  durable.  It  is  nearly  white  in  color, 
being  slightly  tinged  with  very  light  brown,  and  is  odor- 
less, which  latter  feature  makes  it  valuable  for  packing- 


194  THE  FIRS 

cases,  especially  for  butter.  It  is  not  extensively  manufac- 
tured at  present. 

It  is  a  fairly  good  seeder,  with  a  large  wing  attached  to 
the  seed,  and  the  percentage  of  germination  is  good.  It  is 
not  exacting  as  to  a  seed-bed,  and  this,  with  its  endurance 
of  shade,  enables  it  to  wage  an  aggressive  and  successful 
contest  for  reproduction  among  its  associates. 

Amabilis  Fir  :  Abies  aynahilis 

Just  why  "  Lovely  Fir,"  by  which  name  this  tree  is 
largely  and  significantly  known,  could  not  have  been  al- 
lowed to  remain  instead  of  "  Amabilis,"  both  meaning  sub- 
stantially the  same,  is  hard  to  understand.  It  is  sometimes 
called  White  Fir,  which  is  not  truthfully  suggestive  ;  but 
"Amabilis"  is  adopted  by  authorities  and  hence  must  be 
accepted.  Its  range  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains of  Washington  and  Oregon,  where  it  is  found  at  an 
elevation  of  one  thousand  to  six  thousand  feet  above  tide. 
Its  stem  is  slender  and  straight  and,  in  favorable  locations, 
with  a  diameter  of  five  to  six  feet  and  a  height  of  two  hun- 
dred feet ;  but  a  diameter  of  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  and  a 
height  of  seventy-five  feet  are  far  more  common  than  any 
near  approach  to  the  dimensions  first  named.  It  is  moder- 
ately light-demanding,  and  may  be  found  clear  of  limbs  for 
fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  close  stands.  In  the  open  it  retains 
its  limbs  from  the  ground  up.  It  is  a  slow  grower.  Trees 
from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter  are  from 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  to  two  hundred  and  thirty 
years  old. 

The  wood  is  moderately  soft,  but  considerably  harder 
than  that  of  some  of  the  Firs,  close-grained,  not  strong  or 
durable  when  exposed ;  heartwood  light  brown,  with  thin, 
lighter  colored  sapwood.  It  can  be  used  for  interior  finish 
and  similar  purposes,  but  at  present  it  is  seldom  cut  for 
lumber,  because  better  wood  can  be  secured  more  easily. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  capable 


NOBLE   FIR  195 

of  perpetuating  itself  if  given  a  chance,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  it  is  a  slow  grower  and  other  trees  may  be 
profitably  grown  in  its  stead  -,  this  is  undoubtedly  true,  for 
the  area  in  which  it  is  found  produces  faster  growing  ones 
and  those  yielding  far  better  lumber.  Still,  it  would  be  a 
misfortune  to  have  this  beautiful  tree  become  extinct. 

Noble  Fir  :  Abies  nohilis 

Here  is  another  unfortunate  confusion  of  names.  Some 
Oregon  lumbermen,  finding  a  prejudice  existing  against 
lumber  cut  from  any  Fir,  concluded,  a  score  or  more  years 
ago,  to  conceal  the  true  character  of  this  tree  and  call  the 
Noble  Fir  a  Larch.  The  excuse  for  this  was  that  if  given 
its  proper  name,  no  one  would  purchase  it,  but  if  it  were 
thought  to  be  something  else,  there  would  be  no  hesitation, 
nor  would  the  purchaser  be  wronged,  for  the  lumber  cut 
from  this  tree  was  as  good  as  that  cut  from  the  Larch.  If 
this  had  been  true,  such  a  course  would  have  been  open  to 
less  criticism  than  it  now  deserves,  as  the  wrong  to  the 
purchaser  would  have  been  eliminated  ;  but  it  was  not  true, 
for  the  Larch  has  some  valuable  qualities  which  the  Noble 
Fir  does  not  possess,  among  which  are  hardness  and  dur- 
ability when  exposed  to  the  ground.  Then  others,  knowing 
that  Red  Fir  ranked  high  in  quality  among  the  Firs,  con- 
cluded, for  reasons  of  their  own,  to  call  this  one  Red  Fir 
too.  This  confusion  should  cease.  No  suspicion  of  deception 
should  be  attached  to  manufacturer  or  dealer.  The  red  man 
called  the  tree  "  Tuck  Tuck." 

The  name  "Noble  Fir  "  is  very  appropriate  and  significant 
and  should  be  adhered  to,  for  there  are  few  trees  that  can 
equal  it  in  grandeur  and  nobleness  of  form  and  appearance. 
Its  range  is  limited  mainly  to  Oregon,  Washington,  and 
northern  California.  It  may  be  considered  a  moisture-loving 
tree,  both  as  to  soil  and  atmosphere,  and  should  not  be 
expected  to  thrive  outside  of  its  natural  habitat  or  where 
climatic  conditions  are  unlike  those  it  enjoys  at  home.   At 


196  THE  FIRS 

its  best  it  towers  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  with  a  stem  six  to  seven  feet  in  diameter,  with 
slight  taper,  and  clean  of  limb  for  one  hundred  feet  or  more. 
It  is  light-demanding,  and  if  not  grown  in  a  dense  stand 
will  be  found  well  clothed  with  limbs  from  near  the  ground 
up ;  the  seedlings  do  not  thrive  in  the  shade. 

The  wood  is  among  the  heaviest  of  the  Firs,  only  the  Red 
Fir  exceeding  it ;  a  seasoned  cubic  foot  weighs  twenty-eight 
pounds,  while  the  Red  Fir  weighs  twenty-nine  pounds,  and 
our  eastern  White  Fir  only  twenty-two  pounds.  It  is  mod- 
erately hard  and  firm,  strong,  elastic,  medium  fine-grained, 
heartwood  light  brown,  irregularly  marked  with  reddish 
brown  areas,  —  which  add  to  its  beauty  for  interior  finish, 
—  with  thick  and  somewhat  darker  sapwood,  —  the  latter 
feature  unusual  for  a  conifer.  It  is  easily  worked  and  should 
come  into  more  general  use,  as  it  is  superior  in  quality  and 
quite  different  from  any  other  Fir,  and  for  some  purposes 
equal  to  more  popular  coniferous  woods. 

It  is  a  good  seeder,  but  the  percentage  of  germination  is 
unfortunately  low,  and  the  seeds  are  greedily  devoured  by 
birds  and  squirrels,  the  Douglas  squirrel  being  the  greatest 
offender.  The  cones  are  large  for  a  Fir,  being  from  six  to 
seven  inches  in  length,  and  unlike  those  of  any  other  species. 
Whoever  has  seen  them  standing  upright  on  the  topmost 
limbs  of  these  giants  of  the  woods,  or  has  had  the  pleasure 
of  close  inspection,  will  never  forget  them.  In  their  con- 
spicuousness  they  vie  with  the  unique  cones  of  the  Sugar 
Pine.  Reproduction  should  be  at  once  undertaken  in  some 
form,  but  just  what  method  would  be  best  experiment  only 
can  determine.  It  is  true  that  the  tree  is  comparatively  a 
slow  grower,  and  a  long  time  must  elapse  before  merchant- 
able trees  can  be  grown,  but  for  all  that,  our  obligations 
to  posterity  require  us  to  do  our  duty  and  transmit  such 
species  as  prove  valuable  in  our  day.  The  great  giants  will 
soon  be  gone,  but  we  should  leave  it  possible  for  others  to 
grow. 


RED  FIR  197 


Red  Fir  :  Abies  magnifica 

The  name  given  this  tree  is  eminently  appropriate  because 
of  the  deep  brown-red  of  its  bark  and  the  tinge  of  red  in 
its  wood,  while  the  botanical  appellation  magnifica,  mag- 
nificent, is  well  bestowed.  The  author  first  saw  the  tree 
on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Shasta,  and  well  remembers 
the  towering,  stately  form,  with  its  red  stem,  and  can  well 
understand  why  it  is  thought  magnificent.  There  is  another 
variety  of  this  tree  known  as  Abies  magnijica  shastensis, 
but  the  two  are  so  nearly  identical  in  every  economic  re- 
spect that  a  separate  description  would  be  superfluous.  The 
range  of  the  Red  Fir  is  on  mountain  slopes  and  ridges,  at 
an  elevation  running  from  four  thousand  to  eight  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea,  from  southern  Oregon  and  northern 
California  southward  on  the  Sierras. 

It  has  been  found  reaching  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  to  two  hundred  feet,  with  a  stem  seven  or  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  fully  one  half  its  length  clean  of 
limbs,  but  such  specimens  are  rare.  When  growing  in  favor- 
able locations  and  in  dense  stands,  it  forms  a  slightly  taper- 
ing stem  free  of  branches  for  seventy-five  or  eighty  feet, 
but  generally  running  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches 
in  diameter.  It  is  smallest  on  high  elevations.  It  is  slow- 
growing  and  long-lived,"frequently  reaching  an  age  of  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  years.  When  growing  in  the  open, 
it  retains  its  limbs  from  near  the  ground  up.  The  bark  in 
old  trees  is  from  two  to  three  inches  thick  and  deeply  fur- 
rowed. 

The  wood  is  the  heaviest  of  any  of  the  Firs.  It  is  soft,  not 
strong,  comparatively  durable,  light  brown  tinged  with  red, 
with  thick  and  somewhat  darker  sapwood.  It  is  firm  and 
can  be  easily  worked,  but  thus  far  has  been  mainly  used  for 
fuel,  packing-boxes,  and  cheap  construction.  There  is  no 
apparent  reason  why  it  may  not  be  far  more  generally  used 
than  now. 


198  THE  FIRS 

It  produces  seed  abundantly.  Its  cones  are  conspicuously 
large,  and  as  on  all  other  Firs  stand  upright  on  the  limbs  and 
mature  the  first  year.  It  cannot  be  learned  that  any  effort 
has  been  made  looking  to  reproduction,  and  there  is  not 
likely  to  be  any  until  the  more  popular  species  of  timber 
trees  are  exhausted.  When  that  time  arrives,  it  will  dawn 
upon  those  who  must  have  lumber  that  the  Firs  here  de- 
scribed have  a  real  economic  value  and  are  worth  preserva- 
tion. It  will  be  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  Eastern  States  with 
the  Spruces,  Hemlocks,  the  Red  Oak  class,  and  other  species 
which  at  one  time  were  deemed  worthless,  and  were  so  in 
comparison  with  White  Pine  and  the  White  Oak  class,  but 
which  are  now  bringing  prices  equal  to  if  not  greater  than 
those  that  the  latter  brought  when  they  were  the  most 
rapidly  exploited. 


DOUGLAS  FIR:   DOUGLAS   SPRUCE: 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  timber  trees  west  of 
the  great  Continental  Divide.  Only  the  Tideland  Spruce, 
the  Big  Tree,  and  the  Redwood  exceed  it  in  size,  and  none 
but  the  Western  Yellow  Pine  (^Pinus  j^onderosa')  can  sup- 
ply so  great  an  amount  of  first-class  merchantable  lumber. 
"While  the  tree  is  loaded  with  nearly  a  dozen  local  names, 
the  lumber  trade  has  added  to  the  confusion  by  giving  sev- 
eral different  names  to  the  lumber  cut  from  it.  One  may  pur- 
chase in  market  Douglas  Fir,  Red  Fir,  Yellow  Fir,  Douglas 
Spruce,  Yellow  Spruce,  and  Oregon  Pine,  and  yet  all  may 
be  cut  from  the  same  identical  tree.  The  author  well  re- 
members how  he  was  corrected  in  a  Los  Angeles  planing- 
mill  when  he  called  some  lumber  which  a  workman  was  put- 
ting into  a  door  Douglas  Spruce,  and  was  promptly  told  it 
was  Oregon  Pine  —  and  the  man  really  thought  it  was  Pine. 
It  is  not  a  Spruce,  nor  is  it  a  Fir  or  a  Pine,  but  it  largely 
partakes  of  the  characteristics  of  a  Hemlock,  hence  its  bot- 
anical name,  Pseudotsuga,  which  means  False  Hemlock. 
Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  declares  "  Pseudotsuga  is  a  barbar- 
ous name,"  but  for  all  that,  it  indicates  its  true  character. 

Its  natural  range  in  the  United  States  is  from  the  Cana- 
dian line  south,  through  most  of  the  mountain  ranges,  to 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  Mexican  border,  and  from  the  east- 
ern base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but 
it  is  not  found  on  the  mountains  of  the  arid  region  of  the 
Great  Basin.  Its  best  development  is  along  the  coast  region 
of  Washington  and  Oregon  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
on  the  lower  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Range.  It  as- 
cends these  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California  up  to  five 
thousand,  and  in  some  places  up  to  six  thousand  or  more 
feet  above  the  ocean.  In  regions  where  it  thrives  best,  trees 


200  DOUGLAS  FIR 

may  be  found  two  hundred  and  fifty  and,  occasionally,  three 
hundred  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  ranging  from  six 
to  twelve  feet,  and  it  is  claimed  up  to  fifteen  feet,  yet  in  high 
and  exposed  situations  it  may  not  reach  ten  feet  in  height. 
The  average  of  trees  chosen  for  lumber  is  far  below  the 
great  dimensions  named,  but  seldom  is  a  tree  cut  of  smaller 
diameter  than  two  feet.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous  grower 
under  favorable  conditions,  and  generally  dominant,  sup- 
pressing all  other  trees  which  may  attempt  to  become  near 
neighbors.  Large  areas  may  be  seen  where  it  is  in  nearly 
pure  stands  and  where  a  large  number  may  be  found  to  the 
acre.  One  standing  in  a  grove  of  mature  Douglas  Fir  in  its 
best  development  may  find  his  range  of  vision  limited  to 
a  very  small  area  by  the  naked  stems  of  the  trees.  Aside 
from  the  Redwood,  no  other  tree  has  been  known  to  produce 
so  great  a  yield  to  the  acre.  Where  standing  in  a  vigorous 
forest,  it  has  a  straight,  slightly  tapering  stem,  which  may 
frequently  be  seen  clean  of  limbs  for  two  thirds  of  the 
tree's  height ;  but  it  is  not  unusual  for  it  to  have  small  and 
inconsequential  limbs  along  its  stem  towards  the  top. 

It  is  quite  variable  in  character  through  climatic  and 
local  conditions.  Trees  growing  on  high  elevations,  and  es- 
pecially on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra 
Nevada  ranges  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  inferior  to 
those  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra 
Nevada  or  on  the  Coast  Range.  They  are  not  only  smaller, 
but  the  lumber  cut  from  them  is  not  of  as  good  a  quality. 

In  some  respects  the  wood  resembles  that  of  the  Larches 
and  some  of  the  softer  Yellow  Pines,  but  with  less  resin 
than  the  latter.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  strongest  of  the  soft- 
wood conifers ;  and,  weight  for  weight,  is  nearly  as  strong 
as  that  of  the  Oaks.  The  heartwood  ranges  in  color  from 
red  to  yellow,  with  nearly  white  sapwood,  varying  in  thick- 
ness. It  is  claimed  that  the  red  and  yellow  are  different 
species  or,  at  all  events,  different  varieties.  This  is  undoubt- 
edly an  error.  It  is  possible  that  the  difference  in  color  may 
arise  from  age,  rapidity  of  growth,  or  conditions  of  soil  and 


DOl'GLAS    Fin 


Some  of  the  trees  slunvn  are  more  than  seven  feet  in  diameter.    Western 
Washington.—  (opi/rir/hted,  1902,  hp  h'iser  Photo.  Co.,  /'orffnnfl,  Orer/oii. 


DOUGLAS  FIR  201 

location ;  but  none  of  these  reasons  can  prevail  when  dif- 
ferent colors  are  produced  in  the  same  tree,  which  is  not 
uncommon.  Evidently  the  causes  which  produce  the  dis- 
coloration are  not  understood.  As  a  rule,  the  wood  is  hard 
and  somewhat  difficult  to  work,  and,  again,  it  is  found  soft 
and  adapted  to  almost  any  use,  and  no  insignificant  com- 
petitor to  Western  White  Pine.  It  is  not  durable  when  ex- 
posed to  the  soil,  but  for  want  of  wood  which  is  more  durable 
it  is  largely  used  for  railroad  ties  and  telegraph  poles.  The 
tendency  of  large  sticks  to  check  in  seasoning  operates  some- 
what against  its  use  in  heavy  structural  work,  but  when 
cut  into  boards  and  plank,  it  seasons  without  checking,  and 
is  well  fitted  for  interior  finish  as  well  as  for  general  pur- 
poses. It  serves  well  for  masts  of  ships,  booms  for  derricks, 
and  other  like  uses  where  large,  long,  stiff,  strong,  and 
straight  timber  is  required. 

The  bark  is  thin  when  the  tree  is  less  than  about  twelve 
inches  in  diameter,  which  makes  it  at  this  stage  very  sus- 
ceptible to  injury  from  forest  fires ;  but  on  mature  trees  the 
bark  at  the  base  may  reach  a  thickness  of  twelve  or  even 
fourteen  inches,  and  more  on  very  old  trees,  and  as  it  does 
not  scale  off,  it  is  then  very  rough  with  deep  wide  furrows. 
The  character  of  the  bark  varies  much  with  the  humidity 
of  the  region.  Trees  in  dry  and  exposed  situations  have 
rougher  bark  than  in  moist,  damp  forests. 

If  reasonable  care  should  be  taken,  natural  reproduction 
would  go  far  towards  perpetuating  the  supply,  especially 
in  western  Oregon  and  Washington.  But  when  fires  are  per- 
mitted to  run  on  cut-over  lands,  or  second  growth  is  cut 
down  on  lands  unfitted  for  cultivation,  simply  to  obtain 
scant  pasture  for  live  stock,  little  need  be  expected  in  the 
line  of  conservation  until  exhaustion  teaches  a  sorrowful 
lesson.  The  tree  is  a  rapid  grower  for  the  first  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  its  life,  when  the  annual 
rings  begin  to  lessen  in  thickness,  and  at  the  age  of  three 
hundred  years  they  are  not  more  than  half  as  thick.  This 
produces  both  coarse-  and  fine-grained  wood  in  the  same  tree. 


202  DOUGLAS  FIR 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  generally  producing  seed  each  year, 
with  a  high  rate  of  fertility.  The  cones  ripen  early  iu  Au- 
gust, and  by  September  they  open  and  the  seeds  are  scat- 
tered by  the  winds.  The  seeds  are  about  the  size  of  White 
Pine  with  a  wing  of  the  same  dimensions.  They  are  largely 
eaten  by  birds  and  squirrels,  but  the  great  number  pro- 
duce leaves  enough  for  abundant  reproduction.  Experi- 
ments in  eastern  nurseries  show  that  the  production  of 
young  plants  is  not  at  all  difficult.  The  tree  grows  quite 
rapidly  in  the  East  at  first,  but  almost  invariably  fails  as 
age  creeps  on.  Experience  in  attempts  to  grow  it  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River  has  not  been  encouraging,  although 
it  is  said  to  do  well  in  Europe.  It  is  possible  that  seed 
gathered  from  trees  growing  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  may  produce  trees  that  will  endure  the 
climatic  conditions  which  must  be  met  in  the  East.  It  is 
reported  that  it  does  very  well  in  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  In 
western  North  Carolina  it  made  in  ten  years  less  than  half 
the  height  of  White  Pine  of  the  same  age  and  planted  by 
its  side.  Whether  it  can  be  best  grown  by  planting  seeds 
where  the  trees  are  to  stand,  or  whether  trees  would  best 
be  grown  in  a  nursery  must  be  determined  by  experiment, 
but  it  is  very  probable  that  seed  planting  will  serve  as  well, 
and  it  would  certainly  be  much  less  expensive.  Experiments 
in  that  line  should  certainly  be  made  by  those  who  may 
live  within  the  bounds  of  its  natural  range. 


THE  HEMLOCKS 

There  are  three  species  of  Hemlocks  indigenous  to  the 
United  States,  which  have  had,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
still  have,  an  economic  value  as  timber  trees.  Two  of  them 
—  known  as  Eastern  Hemlock  —  are  scattered  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver,  and 
the  home  of  the  other  is  west  of  the  Continental  Divide, 
where  it  is  confined  mainly  to  the  states  of  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California,  The  technical  appellation  for  the 
species  is  Tsuga,  which  is  the  Japanese  name  for  Hemlock; 
and  just  why  such  a  strange  and  barbarous  word  from  a 
far-away  country  should  have  been  selected  for  a  tree  so 
widely  spread  over  our  continent  is  hard  to  determine.  The 
Indian  name,  Oh-neh-tah  ("  Greens  on  the  Stick  "),  is  no 
less  civilized  and  quite  as  euphonious ;  but  the  foreign 
technical  monstrosity  has  "  come  to  stay." 

In  general  characteristics  the  Hemlocks  much  resemble 
the  Spruc6s,  taking  on  a  pyramidal  form  without  special- 
ized branches,  with  short  leaves  and  pendant  but  small 
cones.  Their  limbs  do  not,  however,  spring  out  from  the 
stem  in  whorls,  as  do  most  of  the  conifers,  but  grow  at 
irregular  intervals  from  each  other.  Their  leaves  remain 
on  the  branches  from  three  to  six  or  seven  years.  All  have 
straight,  slightly  tapering  stems  which  are  covered  with 
rough,  hard,  and  somewhat  rigid  bark  of  a  reddish  cinna- 
mon color  when  broken,  and  which  contains  much  tannin. 
This  last  feature  has  made  the  tree  of  much  more  commer- 
cial importance  in  the  East  than  it  would  have  been  for  its 
lumber  alone,  and  large  quantities  were  cut  there  in  former 
days  for  the  bark  only,  the  wood  being  left  to  rot  on  the 
ground  or  be  consumed  in  forest  fires,  which  were  rather 
encouraged  than  otherwise.  No  other  tree  of  moment  has 
bark  so  highly  charged  with  tannin,  not  even  the  Chustnut 


204  THE  HEMLOCKS 

Oak  (^Quercus prinus)^  and  the  Pacific  Coast  species  con- 
tains more  than  the  Eastern  ones  do. 


Eastern  Hemlock 

The  two  Eastern  species  are  respectively  named  "  Hem- 
lock" (^Tsuga  canadensis^  and  "Carolina  Hemlock" 
(^Tsuga  caroliniana}.  In  spite  of  the  name  of  canadensis 
for  the  northern  one,  it  is  no  more  common  in  Canada  than 
in  the  United  States,  nor  as  much  so.  Doubtless  the  states 
of  Maine  and  Pennsylvania  once  possessed  as  much  as  all 
Canada,  to  say  nothing  of  what  grew  in  other  states. 

There  is  little  need  of  an  elaborate  or  extended  descrip- 
tion of  either  of  the  Eastern  species,  —  they  are  substan- 
tially alike —  or  to  designate  the  best  methods  of  reproduction, 
for  as  timber  trees  they  are  practically  doomed  to  extinc- 
tion. While  the  lumber  produced  from  them  is  not  of  a 
high  grade  when  compared  with  the  Spruces  and  Pines, 
yet  the  growing  scarcity  of  these  has  caused  Hemlock  to 
become  better  and  more  favorably  known,  and  for  the  last 
thirty-five  or  forty  years  vast  quantities  of  it  have  been 
consumed  for  many  purposes,  latterly  bringing  high  prices 
Added  to  its  use  as  a  timber  tree  is  the  value  of  its  bark, 
for  tanning,  and  the  further  use  for  the  wood  for  pulp, 
—  it  ranking  next  to  Spruce  for  that  purpose,  —  and  all 
conspire  to  hasten  the  day  of  its  departure.  They  are  slow 
growers  and  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  coniferous  timber 
trees  to  transplant  successfully.  Like  all  others  it  must  be 
grown  in  dense  stands  to  compel  it  to  drop  its  limbs,  and 
where  so  grown  it  is  very  sensitive  to  any  interference  by 
man.  Old  lumbermen  well  understand  that  fact.  Even  cut- 
ting down  a  few  trees  among  them  will  cause  the  death  of 
near  neighbors. 

The  wood  of  the  Eastern  Hemlocks  is  hard,  much  given 
to  "  wind  shakes,"  is  generally  cross-grained,  splits  easily, 
warps  when  seasoning,  and  much  of  it  is  filled  with  large 
knots  which  are  so  hard  as  to  break  any  but  the  best  of 


VIRGIN    >TAXn   OF    WHITE   FIXE   AND   HKMI.ih  K.  WITH 

SECOND   GROWTH   OF   EACH   COMING   ON    WHERE 

ORIGINAL   FOREST  WAS   CUT  OFF 

Clearfield  County,  Pennsylvania. 


VIRGIN  STAND  OF   HEMLOCK,  FROM  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  TO 

TWO   HUNDRED   YEARS   OLD 

Tiofra  County,  Pennsylvania.  —  Photographed  by  George  Harrison. 


WESTERN  HEMLOCK  205 

steel  implements  used  in  cutting  and  working  it.  Now,  add 
to  all  this  the  further  fact  that  natural  reforestation  can 
stand  no  chance  whatever  with  seed  trees  gone,  and  that  in 
nearly  every  situation  in  which  it  thrives  better  species, 
such  as  the  Pines,  will  grow  more  rapidly  and  produce  more 
and  better  lumber,  and  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  efforts 
to  cultivate  the  tree  for  timber  would  not  be  advisable.  As 
a  timber  tree  it  must  hereafter  be  relegated  to  areas  where 
it  can,  with  a  scant  number  of  seed  trees,  maintain  itself 
by  natural  reproduction,  coupled  with  adverse  surroundings. 
It  is  a  slow  grower  in  early  life  as  well  as  in  old  age,  and 
quite  a  prolific  seeder. 

As  an  ornamental  tree  it  has  no  equal  among  the  coni- 
ferous evergreens.  The  late  A.  J.  Downing,  the  father  of 
landscape  gardening  in  America,  pronounced  it  the  most 
picturesque  and  beautiful  of  all  the  evergreens  in  the  world, 
and  he  was  undoubtedly  correct.  In  the  open,  its  crown 
grows  a  dense  cone  with  limbs  from  the  ground  up,  its 
terminal  sprays  drooping  gracefully  and  in  early  summer 
tipped  with  the  new  yellow  leaves,  which  show  like  blos- 
soms all  over  the  tree,  the  dark  background  of  leaves  of 
former  years'  growth  furnishing  a  harmonious  but  contrast- 
ing setting.  As  it  grows  old,  the  lower  limbs  begin  to  die, 
although  the  tree  is  quite  tolerant  of  shade.  It  has  been  a 
valuable  tree  and  is  to-day,  but  when  the  question  of  repro- 
duction is  to  be  determined,  it  must  give  way  to  better  spe- 
cies and  those  that  can  be  much  more  easily  and  profitably 
propagated. 

Western  Hemlock 

The  Western  species  is  commonly  called  "  Hemlock,'* 
and  its  botanical  designation  is  Tsvga  heterophylla.  Its 
range  is  along  the  Canadian  line  from  the  Pacific  Coast 
east  to  Montana  and  south  along  the  Cascade  Mountains 
to  northern  California,  at  elevations  varying  from  close  to 
sea  level  to  five  thousand  feet  above.  Its  best  development  is 
in  western  Washington  and  Oregon,  where  it  attains  a  height 


206  THE  HEMLOCKS 

of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  five  or 
six  feet,  yet  such  specimens  are  rare.  It  thrives  best  in  a 
moist  soil  and  a  humid  atmosphere.  It  is  rather  more  light- 
demanding  than  its  Eastern  relatives  and  in  dense  stands 
will  grow  tall,  with  a  slightly  tapering  stem  clean  of  limbs 
for  half  its  height.  It  is  superior  in  all  respects  to  any  other 
Hemlock  as  a  timber  tree.  The  bark  is  more  valuable,  and 
the  lumber  cut  from  it  is  of  such  good  quality  that  the  lum- 
bermen of  Washington  and  Oregon  have  little  or  no  diffi- 
culty in  mixing  ten  per  cent  of  it  with  Douglas  Spruce  and 
palming  it  off  on  customers  and  consumers  for  "  Oregon 
Pine."  The  wood  is  fine-grained,  rather  light,  soft,  tough, 
and  more  durable  than  the  Eastern  species.  The  heartwood 
is  pale  yellowish  brown,  slightly  tinged  with  red,  with  thin 
and  nearly  white  sapwood.  Except  in  point  of  strength 
the  one  who  purchases  Western  Hemlock  believing  it  to  be 
"  Oregon  Pine  "  is  not  much  wronged,  for  it  is  softer  and 
more  easily  worked  than  that  wood ;  in  fact,  is  nearly  equal 
to  the  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  facility  and  ease  of  work- 
ing. If  the  purchasing  public  could  be  induced  to  lay  aside 
the  prejudice  which  loads  down  the  very  name  of  Hem- 
lock, and  to  accept  the  lumber  cut  from  this  particular  spe- 
cies, and  to  accept  it  on  its  merits,  it  would  quickly  come 
into  general  use,  for  it  is  really  a  valuable  wood.  It  has  few 
of  the  defects  of  its  Eastern  relative. 

It  is  a  very  prolific  seeder  and  will  reproduce  itself  if 
given  anything  near  a  fair  opportunity.  No  other  method 
need  be  undertaken  if  sufficient  seed  trees  are  left  and  fire 
kept  out.  It  is  not  known  that  any  attempts  have  been  made 
to  propagate  it  artificially,  except  such  efforts  as  have  been 
made  by  eastern  nurserymen  who  have  endeavored  to  grow 
it  as  an  ornamental  tree,  but  with  poor  success.  It  has  been 
developed  in  the  moist  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  can- 
not endure  removal,  although  it  is  stated  that  it  thrives  fairly 
well  in  northern  Europe  not  far  from  the  sea.  Unfortunately 
it  is  a  slow  grower,  and  trees  sixteen  or  seventeen  inches  in 
diameter  are  from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  years  old. 


RED   CEDAR:   Juniperus  virginiana 

No  matter  what  may  be  said  of  the  inaccuracy  in  call- 
ing certain  different  species  of  trees  "  Cedars,"  that  name 
is  so  fixed  in  the  lumber  trade  and  in  the  mind  of  the  pub- 
lic that  submission  is  the  only  alternative.  The  species  so 
misnamed  are  the  Junipers,  Thuyas  (Arborvitaes),  Libo- 
cedrus,  and  Chamaecyparis,  but  in  the  common  parlance 
they  are  all  "Cedars." 

The  Junipers  are,  no  doubt,  the  most  widely  distributed 
species  of  trees  on  our  continent  and  may  be  found  in 
nearly  every  state  of  the  Union.  Except  for  posts  and  like 
uses,  and  in  some  sections,  for  fuel,  only  one  of  the  eleven 
species  of  Junipers  in  the  United  States  has  any  commer- 
cial value  as  a  timber  tree,  and  that  is  the  one  commonly 
called  Red  Cedar,  botanically  known  as  Juniperus  vir- 
giniana. It  may  be  found  growing  but  little  better  than  a 
shrub  in  some  sections,  and  as  a  stately  tree  one  hundred 
feet  high  aud  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  in  others. 
Ordinarily,  where  cut  for  lumber  it  does  not  reach  more 
than  fifty  feet  in  height  and  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
through.  While  its  size  is  materially  affected  by  soil  and 
location,  it  will  persist  in  accepting,  with  a  compensat- 
ing discount,  almost  any  soil  or  location  from  a  swamp  to 
a  rocky  cliff.  Its  range  is  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  west- 
ward along  the  Canadian  line  to  North  Dakota,  and  south- 
ward to  Texas.  Its  best  development  is  south  of  the  Ohio 
River.  Along  the  foothills  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River,  and  in  northern  Ala- 
bama, there  could  once  be  seen  vigorous  stands  of  large 
trees,  but  they  are  now  sadly  thinned.  It  generally  grows 
mixed  with  other  species,  but  on  the  so-called  "  Cedar 
Barrens"  of  middle  Tennessee  it  forms  pure  stands. 

It  is  an  evergreen  conifer  and  in  early  life,  when  in  the 


208  RED  CEDAR 

open,  sends  up  a  straight  stem  covered  from  bottom  to  top 
with  small  short  branches,  forming  a  narrow-based,  slim, 
sharp  cone  for  a  crown ;  but  as  age  creeps  on,  its  lower 
limbs  die  or  cease  to  grow  and  the  crown  assumes  a  round 
and  irregular  form.  It  is  a  slow  grower  at  all  periods  of 
life.  One  on  the  author's  lawn  has  a  stem  three  and  one 
half  inches  in  diameter,  one  foot  above  ground,  outside  the 
bark,  and  is  fourteen  feet  high  and  fully  twenty  years  of 
age.  A  board  in  his  possession,  showing  nearly  the  full 
diameter  of  a  tree,  which  was  fourteen  inches,  has  an  aver- 
age of  twenty  annual  rings  to  the  inch  for  the  first  six 
inches  of  its  growth  and  an  average  of  thirt3'-five  for  the 
remainder.  The  tree  was  not  less  than  one  hundred  and 
ninety  years  of  age.  It  will  not  be  safe  to  count  on  saw 
timber  in  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  from  the 
time  of  planting. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  easily  worked,  close-grained, 
quite  brittle,  not  strong,  and  very  fragrant.  The  heart- 
wood  is  a  dull  red,  with  thin  and  nearly  white  sapwood. 
There  is  a  plain  but  not  prominent  distinction  between 
spring  and  summer  growth  both  in  color  and  hardness,  as 
any  one  sharpening  a  lead  pencil  will  have  observed.  The 
medullary  rays  are  numerous,  small,  and  hardly  visible  to 
the  naked  eye.  It  is  largely  used  for  posts  and  for  sills  of 
buildings  and  other  places  where  great  durability  is  de- 
sired, the  sapwood,  however,  decaying  much  sooner  than 
the  heartwood.  The  heartwood  is  extensively  used  for  lead 
pencils,  —  no  other  wood  proving  so  acceptable,  —  interior 
finish,  closets  and  chests  to  exclude  moths,  and  for  pails, 
tubs,  and  other  household  utensils. 

It  is  a  good  seeder  and  the  seeds  are  widely  scattered  by 
birds,  but  germination  is  slow  and  difficult  to  bring  about 
in  the  nursery,  and  seedlings  sometimes  suffer  seriously 
from  a  fungus  disease.  There  is  considerable  difficulty  at- 
tending growing  seedlings  to  an  age  suitable  to  transplant 
into  the  forest.  Any  one  contemplating  it  to  even  a  moder- 
ate extent  should  consult   United  States  Forest  Service 


RED   CEDAR  209 

Circular  No.  73,  entitled  "Red  Cedar,"  where  full  and  ex- 
plicit directions  for  gathering,  caring  for,  and  planting 
seeds  will  be  found,  together  with  instructions  for  setting 
the  plants  into  the  forest.  Those  who  require  a  limited 
number  will  do  best  to  obtain  them  from  some  nursery  or 
secure  them  where  natural  reproduction  has  taken  place. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  drying  the  roots  by  expos- 
ure to  the  air  is  almost  certain  to  prove  fatal. 

While  it  is  a  very  valuable  wood,  the  fact  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  many  other  species  of  trees  will  grow  rap- 
idly and  can  be  successfully  planted  where  Red  Cedar 
thrives  best,  and  will  bring  returns  far  sooner  and  are  less 
liable  to  disease.  Had  we  the  patience  of  the  German  we 
should  plant  the  tree  for  future  generations,  just  as  he  did 
nearly  fourscore  years  ago,  seeing  that  it  would  be  needed 
for  "  pencil  wood  "  in  due  time,  and  the  time  will  come 
much  sooner  than  he  anticipated. 


WHITE   CEDAR:   ARBORVITiE:   Thuya  ocd- 
dentalis 

There  are  two  species  of  Arborvitse  in  the  United  States. 
One  is  in  the  East  and  is  commonly  called  White  Cedar 
(  Thuya  occidentalism,  and  the  other  belongs  to  the  Pacific 
Slope  and  is  generally  known  as  "  Cedar,"  but  is  sometimes 
called  Red  Cedar.  Its  botanical  appellation  is  Thuya  pli- 
cata.  Both  species  are  resinous,  aromatic,  coniferous  ever- 
greens, the  Eastern  one  of  moderate  dimensions  and  the 
Western  one  of  gigantic  proportions.  Neither  is  a  true  Cedar, 
but  both  are  classed  as  such  by  the  lumber  trade. 

The  Eastern  tree  is  almost  universally  called  White 
Cedar.  It  is  not  loaded  down  with  many  names.  The  In- 
dians called  it  "  Oo-soo-ha-tah,"  —  Feather  Leaf,  —  which 
really  sounds  as  well,  or  better,  than  "  Thuya,"  a  name 
which  can  be  applied  to  other  coniferous  trees.  It  is  found 
in  dense  stands  on  swampy  ground  bordering  the  banks 
of  streams  and  shores  of  lakes  —  occasionally  climbing  to 
drier  ground  —  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United 
States  from  Maine  to  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  and 
south  to  central  Minnesota  and  Michigan,  northern  Illinois, 
and  in  the  Atlantic  region  along  the  mountains  to  North 
Carolina  and  also  reaching  eastern  Tennessee.  In  its  north- 
ern range  trees  fifty  to  eighty  feet  high,  and  with  a  but- 
tressed base  of  four  feet,  were  frequently  found.  But  few 
such  trees  are  left,  yet  white  cedar  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone poles  may  still  be  seen  quite  two  feet  in  diameter 
and  forty  or  fifty  feet  in  height  cut  from  the  forests  of 
northern  United  States  or  Canada. 

Its  tendency  is  to  grow  tall  whether  in  the  open  or  in  a 
dense  stand.  If  crowded,  that  tendency  is  intensified  and 
the  lower  limbs  die  and  drop  off,  leaving  a  comparatively 
clean   stem   for   a   considerable   height,  with   only  small 


WHITE  CEDAR  211 

branches  composing  the  crown.  When  growing  in  the  open 
borders  of  streams  or  lakes,  its  persistent  demand  for  light 
causes  many  trees  to  grow  crooked,  bending  outward  in 
early  life  and  then  turning  upward,  thus  rendering  the  tree 
unfit  for  anything  but  short  stuff. 

The  wood  is  very  light,  a  cubic  foot  weighing  only  nine- 
teen pounds  when  dry.  It  is  soft,  straight-grained,  easily 
split,  weak,  brittle,  moderately  fine-grained,  durable  when 
exposed  to  the  soil,  and  fragrant.  The  heartwood  is  pale 
yellowish  brown,  with  thin  and  nearly  white  sapwood. 
There  is  little  difference  between  spring  and  summer  growth. 
It  is  largely  used  for  posts  of  all  kinds,  telegraph,  telephone, 
trolley  and  electric-light  poles,  railroad  ties,  hop  poles, 
shingles,  boats,  and  sills  for  buildings.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  wood  is  very  durable,  many  live  trees  above  nine 
or  ten  inches  in  diameter  will  be  found  hollow  for  a  few 
feet  above  the  ground.  This  decay  appears  to  cease  after 
the  tree  is  cut. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder  and  natural  reproduction  will  take 
place  fairly  well,  if  permitted.  It  can  be  readily  grown  in 
the  nursery,  and  its  shallow,  fibrous  root  system  renders  it 
an  easy  tree  to  transplant.  It  is  a  slow  grower,  but  as  it 
thrives  best  where  more  rapidly  growing  trees  do  not,  and 
as  it  is  almost  indispensable  for  certain  purposes,  its  propa- 
gation should  be  undertaken  where  the  location  is  suitable 
and  where  more  valuable  species  will  not  grow  equally  as 
well.  While  it  will  grow  on  comparatively  dry  ground,  it 
does  not  thrive  as  well  there  as  in  its  natural  soil. 

The  seeds  mature  in  one  year  and  should  be  gathered 
from  the  1st  to  the  15th  of  September.  They  are  very  small 
—  running  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  thousand  to  the  pound  —  and  almost 
entirely  surrounded  with  a  film-like  wing,  and  are  readily 
blown  a  great  distance.  The  treatment  of  seeds,  propagation 
in  the  nursery,  —  transplants  are  preferable,  —  and  subse- 
quent removal  to  the  forest  should  be  the  same  as  for 
White  Pine  except  that  they  should  be  set  closer  in  the 


212  WHITE  CEDAR 

forest  than  is  advisable  for  that  tree :  from  four  to  five 
feet  apart  would  be  about  right  in  most  situations.  If  trans- 
plants are  not  sought,  the  seedlings  may  remain  in  the  seed- 
bed for  three  years,  as  the  tree  is  a  slow  grower  in  early  as 
well  as  in  later  life.  If  at  all  encouraged,  natural  seeding 
will  take  place,  and  no  doubt  planting  seeds  would  be  suc- 
cessful. No  information  can  be  obtained  of  any  effort  to 
grow  it  as  a  forest  tree,  but  it  is  largely  used  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  and  for  wind-breaks. 

There  is  another  tree  commonly  called  White  Cedar,  but 
which  is  botanically  known  as  Chamcecyparis  thyoldes.  It 
closely  resembles  the  Eastern  White  Cedar  just  described, 
but  grows  to  greater  dimensions,  frequently  reaching  a  dia- 
meter of  four  feet  above  a  slightly  buttressed  base,  and  a 
height  of  seventy-five  or  eighty  feet.  It  may  truthfully  be 
called  a  coastal  tree,  as  it  is  mainly  found  in  swamps  that 
are  sometimes  submerged  for  months,  along  the  coast  from 
Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  I'arely  reaching 
farther  west  than  Mobile  Bay.  It  is  better  adapted  to  the 
manufacture  of  lumber  than  the  Eastern  Arborvitae,  as  the 
stem  is  more  cylindrical  and  its  taper  much  less ;  but  the 
lumber  trade  makes  no  distinction.  The  character  of  the 
wood  and  its  uses  are  substantially  the  same,  although  there 
is  a  greater  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood, 
and  the  annual  rings  are  consequently  more  conspicuous 
than  in  the  Eastern  White  Cedar.  Whether  it  can  be  grown 
outside  of  its  natural  habitat  is  somewhat  doubtful,  as  it  is 
distinctively  a  swamp  tree,  yet  it  is  possible  that,  like  the 
Bald  Cypress,  it  will  grow  in  drier  locations.  If  so  its  cul- 
tivation could  become  possible  elsewhere. 


WESTERN  RED  CEDAR:   GIANT  ARBOR- 
VITiE:    Thuya  jyllcata 

This  species  is  known  in  the  lumber  trade  as  Western 
Red  Cedar,  or  just  plain  "Cedar";  and,  like  nearly  all 
the  timber  trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  is  a  giant  in  compari- 
son with  trees  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  though  it  cannot  be 
so  classed  among  its  neighbors.  It  is  found  from  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  with  a  diame- 
ter of  ten  feet  at  the  base.  The  stem  assumes  a  distinctively 
conical  form,  and  in  old  trees  the  diameter  at  the  base  may 
be  nearly  twice  that  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  above.  The 
thickness  of  the  annual  rings  of  nearly  all  trees  is  greater 
at  the  base  than  above  at  the  same  age,  but  this  is  strik- 
ingly so  with  this  tree.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  tree  is 
the  deep  fluting  of  its  stem  prevalent  from  middle  age  on. 
When  young,  and  growing  in  the  open,  the  slender  limbs 
shoot  upward,  but  as  age  increases  they  gradually  droop, 
and  at  middle  height  stand  out  nearly  horizontal,  with 
their  ends  gracefully  curving  upward,  while  the  ends  of 
those  lower  down  will  rest  on  the  ground.  The  limbs  are 
never  large,  and  the  tree  being  tolerant  of  shade,  they  are 
prone  to  adhere  to  the  stem  until  the  tree  reaches  middle 
life  or  later.  It  is  not  infrequent,  however,  to  see  a  clean 
stem  for  sixty  to  eighty  or  more  feet.  On  old  trees,  in  dense 
stands,  the  crown  is  short  and  somewhat  rounded.  Its  live 
bark  is  tough,  stringy,  and  fibrous,  and  is  sometimes  woven 
into  coarse  fabrics  and  made  into  baskets  by  the  Indians. 
It  lives  to  a  great  age.  It  is  a  fairly  rapid  grower  in  early 
life,  but  trees  from  twenty -four  to  forty  inches  in  diameter 
run  from  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  and  ten  years  of 
age. 

Its  natural  range  in  the  United  States  —  it  reaches  along 
the  Pacific  Slope  to  Alaska  —  is  from  the  Canadian  line 


214  WESTERN  RED  CEDAR 

southward  through  Washington,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  into 
northwest  California,  with  scattered  stands  in  northern 
Montana.  Its  best  development  is  where  the  air  is  moist, 
but  not  next  to  the  ocean.  It  prefers  a  fertile  soil,  but  will 
thrive  fairly  well  on  comparatively  dry  ground. 

The  wood  is  very  light,  fragrant,  dull  and  light  reddish 
brown  in  color,  but  fading  on  exposure,  with  straight  grain, 
varying  from  fine  to  medium,  coarse,  brittle,  soft,  easily 
split,  and  very  durable.  It  is  largely  used  for  shingles  — 
nearly  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  shingles  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  being  from  that  wood — and  for  rail- 
road ties,  poles  of  all  kinds,  posts,  sills,  and  every  purpose 
where  a  soft,  not  strong,  but  durable  wood  is  required. 

The  tree  is  a  free  seeder  with  a  high  percentage  of  germ- 
ination, and  if  allowed,  natural  reproduction  would  occur. 
No  information  can  be  obtained  as  to  whetlier  any  effort  has 
been  made  to  propagate  it  beyond  what  nurserymen  have 
undertaken  in  the  East,  where  it  has  not  shown  itself  able 
to  endure  the  climatic  conditions.  No  doubt  planting  in 
the  nursery  and  removing  to  the  forest  would  succeed,  but 
natural  reproduction  would  be  ample  if  allowed. 


BALD   CYPKESS :    Taxodium  distichum 

Why  names  widely  different  in  meaning  should  be  used 
to  designate  what  may  be  fancied  as  particular  character- 
istics of  a  tree,  such  as  black,  white,  and  red,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  Bald  Cypress,  is  certainly  very  strange ;  but  it 
emphasizes  the  difficulty  of  indicating  what  tree  is  meant 
when  only  the  local  common  name  is  given.  None  of  the 
conflicting  terms  named  in  this  case,  however,  are  used  to 
any  great  extent,  and  Bald  Cypress  —  probably  because  of 
its  deciduous  habit,  becoming  "  bald  "  in  winter  —  may  be 
considered  as  the  accepted  name.  Lumber  cut  from  the 
tree  is  known  as  "  cypress  "  in  the  trade.  "While  there  are 
two  species  of  Cypress  on  this  continent,  and  several  varie- 
ties of  one  of  them,  only  the  one  under  consideration  has 
any  commercial  value. 

The  tree  is  strictly  a  conifer,  but  not  an  evergreen,  for 
it  sheds  all  of  its  leaves  and  some  of  its  smallest  twigs  each 
year.  It  matures  its  fruit  in  one  year,  but  its  flower  buds 
are  formed  the  year  previous.  It  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  regions,  where  it  was  once  found 
abundantly  in  swamps  and  along  low  banks  of  streams 
which  are  usually  submerged  for  months  at  a  time,  and  in 
the  case  of  some  swamps  continually  so.  Large  areas,  de- 
nominated "  cypress  swamps,"  are  still  to  be  seen,  where 
lumbering  operations  are  difficult  and  expensive.  It  is  also 
found  growing  in  wet  depressions  and  occasionally  on  dry 
ground,  in  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Ken- 
tucky, southern  Illinois,  and  southern  Indiana.  It  is  one 
of  the  very  few  species  of  trees  that  will  accommodate 
itself  to  extremes  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  Its  preferred 
habitat  is  evidently  in  swamps  where  its  roots  are  kept  wet 
or  continually  submerged  ;  yet  when  located  on  dry  ground 
it  grows  nearly  if  not  quite  as  well  as  when  in  a  swamp 


216  BALD  CYPRESS 

and  produces  apparently  as  good  lumber.  The  illustration 
shows  a  tree  standing  on  a  dry  knoll  in  the  capitol  grounds 
at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  The  base  of  this  knoll  is  rock, 
and  it  is  covered  with  alluvial  gravel  and  sand,  some  twenty 
feet,  or  thereabout,  in  thickness.  The  surface  of  the  ground 
where  the  tree  stands  is  fully  seventy-five  feet  above  the 
water  in  the  Susquehanna  River,  about  one  third  of  a  mile 
distant.  The  tree  is  eighty-four  feet  high  and  twenty-nine 
inches  in  diameter  five  feet  above  the  ground.  It  is  pro- 
bably about  seventy-five  years  of  age.  It  cannot  be  much, 
if  any,  above  that  age,  as  it  was  set  out  there  some  sixty- 
five  or  seventy  years  ago. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  natural  tendency  of  the  tree 
is  to  grow  straight  and  tall,  even  in  the  open,  where  it  as- 
sumes a  conical  form  of  crown  with  an  acute  apex ;  but  in 
old  age,  and  after  it  has  attained  its  height  growth,  the 
limbs  spread  out  and  form  a  round  top  with  a  broad  base, 
and  it  is  then  anything  but  the  symmetrical  cone  shown  in 
the  illustration.  When  growing  in  swamps,  it  has  a  broad 
buttressed  stem  base,  which  is  usually  hollow,  and  its  roots 
throw  up  smooth  conical  projections,  termed  "  knees,"  but 
the  extreme  form  or  development  of  base  largely  disap- 
pears, and  the  knees  entirely  so,  when  growing  on  dry 
ground.  What  purpose  these  knees  serve  in  the  economy 
of  the  tree,  or  what  functions  they  perform,  is  entirely  con- 
jectural —  possibly  to  supply  air  to  the  roots. 

It  sometimes  grows  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet,  with  a  diameter  of  five  or  six  feet  at  the  height  where 
the  buttressed  base  vanishes.  These  are  unusual  dimen- 
sions, however.  We  have  no  other  valuable  timber  tree 
which  so  greatly  modifies  its  method  and  form  of  growth 
by  change  of  soil  and  location,  or  takes  on  a  form  in  old 
age  so  widely  differing  from  that  of  its  youth,  as  the  Bald 
Cypress.  It  is  quite  a  rapid  grower  in  early  life,  but  gen- 
erally slow  in  its  old  age,  frequently  not  then  increasing 
in  diameter  more  than  two  inches  in  thirty  or  forty  years, 
while  in  early  life  it  may  increase  more  than  five  times 


BALD  CYPRESS.    XOT  OVER   SEVEXTY-FI\T:  YEARS   OLD:    TWEXTY- 

XIXE   IXCHES   IX   DL\METER   SIX   FEET  ABOVE   THE 

GROrXD,  AND   EIGHTY-FOUR  FEET  HIGH 

Note  straight  stem  and  freedom  from  large  limbs  and  total  absence  of  "knees.' 

Stands  on  State  Capitol  Grounds,  HarrLsburg.  Pennsylvania. 


BALD  CYPRESS  217 

that  amount.  The  one  shown  in  the  illustration  has  exceeded 
that. 

The  wood  is  generally  straight-grained, — but  not  always, 
—  light,  soft,  easily  worked,  not  strong,  and  very  durable 
when  exposed.  The  heartwood  is  from  light  to  dark  brown 
in  color,  —  frequently  with  dark  streaks,  —  with  light- 
colored  sapwood.  The  medullary  rays  are  very  small  and 
indistinct.  There  is  frequently  a  marked  difference  in  color 
between  spring  and  summer  wood.  It  is  used  for  general 
construction,  interior  finish,  greenhouse  and  hotbed  sash, 
cooperage,  shingles,  fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  and  any  pur- 
pose where  light,  durable  wood  is  required.  It  takes  paint 
and  glue  well,  but  does  not  give  a  fine  finish  when  varnished, 
showing  a  dull,  dark,  monotonous  surface.  A  fungus  dis- 
ease pits  much  of  the  wood,  but  as  in  the  case  of  a  similar 
disease  in  the  White  Cedar,  it  stops  when  the  trees  are 
felled.  Thus  far  it  has  been  artificially  grown  entirely  for 
ornamental  purposes,  and  nurserymen  find  little  difiiculty 
in  propagating  it.  Being  a  swamp  tree,  ground  that  can  be 
kept  moist  should  be  chosen  for  a  seed-bed.  Treatment  in 
the  nursery  should  be  the  same  as  for  White  Pine.  The 
cones  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  for  they  fall  apart 
soon  thereafter.  It  is  not  a  prolific  seeder. 

As  its  natural  tendency  is  to  grow  tall  when  in  the  open, 
probably  planting  eight  by  eight  feet  apart  in  the  forest 
would  be  close  enough  ;  but  the  distance  should  be  regulated 
by  the  character  of  the  soil.  If  rich  and  moist  nine  by  nine 
feet,  or  even  ten  by  ten,  might  do  well.  Everything  done  in 
planting  this  tree  in  the  forests  will  necessarily  be  experi- 
mental, and  therefore  should  be  carefully  conducted  and 
on  a  limited  scale.  As  it  is  indigenous  to  this  country  only, 
and  no  efforts  have  been  put  forth  anywhere  to  grow  it  as 
a  forest  tree,  all  work  in  that  line  will  necessarily  be  with- 
out a  precedent.  About  all  we  know  to  a  certainty  concern- 
ing its  cultivation  is  that  plants  can  be  grown  in  a  nursery 
and  transplanted  into  quite  dry  ground  and  thrive  well, 
and  it  will  surely  be  safe  to  presume  that  they  can  be  set 


218  BALD  CYPRESS 

out  on  wet  ground  and  flourish  there,  for  such  is  evidently 
its  preferred  location.  Its  rapidity  of  growth  in  early  life 
and  the  excellent  character  of  the  wood  will  certainly  justify 
efforts  to  propagate  it  in  the  forests.^  As  it  is  practically 
a  southern  tree,  it  cannot  be  expected  to  stand  extreme 
cold.  Probably  it  will  not  thrive  far  north  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

^  "  Thia  tree  deserves  more  attention  from  those  who  are  cultivating 
forest  trees  than  it  has  ever  received.  It  is  a  very  hardy  tree  in  my  grounds, 
and  grows  quite  rapidly,  even  in  a  dry  soil."  —  Andrew  S.  Fuller,  in  Prac- 
tical Forestry,  page  249.  Orange  Judd  &  Co.,  1903. 


THE  LARCHES 

There  are  three  species  of  Larches  (botanically  Larix) 
indigenous  to  the  United  States,  and  two  of  them  are  of 
economic  importance.  One  is  mainly  confined  to  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  Eastern  States  and  the  other  to  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  Slope 
region.  The  Eastern  species  is  generally  known  as  "  Tama- 
rack," and  the  Western  one  as  "  Larch."  The  lumber  trade 
has  adopted  these  names,  and,  to  avoid  confusion,  they  are 
here  accepted. 

Tamarack  :  Larix  laridna 

Tamarack  may  be  occasionally  found  in  the  territory 
lying  between  Virginia  on  the  south  and  Canada  on  the 
north,  and  from  western  Minnesota  on  the  west  to  Maine 
on  the  east.  In  the  southern  portion  of  its  range  it  is  seldom 
found  as  a  forest  tree  elsewhere  than  in  swamps,  or  on  quite 
wet  ground  bordering  swamps  and  sluggish  streams,  at  a 
high  elevation.  Further  north  it  accepts  comparatively  dry 
soil,  and  grows  as  rapidly  as  it  does  in  its  southern  habitat 
on  wet  or  swampy  ground ;  but  for  all  that,  it  is  essentially 
a  swamp  tree.  It  is  not  a  rapid  grower  at  its  best,  even  in 
its  most  preferred  location,  and  never  attains  a  large  size, 
rarely  reaching  eighty  feet  in  height  or  twenty  inches  in 
diameter ;  ordinarily  not  exceeding  sixty  feet  in  height  or 
twelve  inches  through.  It  grows  to  a  larger  size  in  Canada 
than  in  the  United  States,  as  it  is  substantially  a  cold- 
climate  tree.  In  the  forest  its  tendency  is  to  grow  tall  and 
slim  with  a  true  taper  of  stem  from  base  to  crown,  if  mis- 
hap does  not  occur  to  its  leader,  but  if  that  does  happen, 
there  is  a  struggle  set  up  for  supremacy  and  two  or  more 
stems  will  be  the  result. 


220  THE  LARCHES 

It  is  light-demanding,  and  in  the  forest  is  surmounted 
by  a  narrow,  sharply  pyramidal  crown,  but  in  the  open  the 
crown  frequently  becomes  broken  and  irregular.  Crowding 
results  in  killing  off  its  lower  limbs  in  early  life,  giving  a 
smooth,  clean  stem,  free  of  large  knots.  In  swamps  it  devel- 
ops fine,  strong,  and  very  long  fibrous  roots.  The  Indians 
used  these  to  sew  together  the  birch  bark  strips  of  their 
canoes,  for  which  purpose  it  served  admirably.  The  red  man 
called  the  tree  "  Hackmatack,"  a  name  by  which  it  is  known 
in  many  places.  While  it  is  strictly  a  conifer,  it  is  not  an 
evergreen,  as  it  sheds  all  of  its  leaves  in  early  fall.  The 
leaves  are  bright  green  until  late  summer,  when  they  turn 
a  pale  yellow.  It  is  not  a  very  frequent  nor  an  abundant 
seed-bearer.  The  little  cones  are  usually  about  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  long  and  fall  the  second  year.  The  seed  matures 
the  first  year  and  is  scarcely  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  a  wing  fully  three  times  its  length.  The  wood  is  heavy 
for  what  is  really  a  softwood  conifer,  hard,  strong,  and  very 
durable  when  exposed,  or  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  heart- 
wood  is  light  brown  in  color,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
Its  annual  rings  are  fairly  distinct,  but  there  is  not  much 
difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood.  It  is  used 
mainly  for  railroad  ties,  telegraph  and  telephone  poles, 
fence  posts,  and  other  purposes  where  durable  timber  in 
contact  with  the  ground  is  required.  The  "  instep  bend  " 
of  the  larger  roots  is  much  used  in  light  boat-building. 

Growing  plants  in  the  nursery  and  transplanting  them 
into  such  situations  as  their  nature  demands  would  undoubt- 
edly be  successful,  but  to  plant  them  on  low  elevations  or 
in  dry  ground  in  its  southern  range  would  not  be  likely  to 
bring  forth  satisfactory  results.  Commercial  nurserymen 
have  no  difficulty  in  growing  them  for  ornamental  purposes, 
but  if  reasonable  care  should  be  taken,  natural  reforesta- 
tion would  occur  on  ground  where  other  and  more  valuable 
trees  will  not  flourish.  Gathering  and  planting  seeds  could 
fill  in  vacant  places  in  swamps,  and  as  the  wood  is  valuable 
for  many  purposes  such  a  course  might  be  advantageous. 


WESTERN  LARCH  221 

A  winged  insect,  commonly  known  as  a  "  saw-fly,"  has 
recently  attacked  the  Tamarack  in  the  northern  portions 
of  its  range  and  is  doing  much  damage,  in  many  cases  de- 
stroying large  numbers  of  trees.  There  is  no  known  remedy. 

Western  Larch  :  Larix  occidentalis 

In  this  we  have  a  tree  of  much  more  economic  import- 
ance than  the  Eastern  species,  notwithstanding  its  com- 
paratively restricted  area.  Its  natural  range  is  on  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  from  northern  Montana,  Idaho, 
and  Washington  as  far  south  as  southern  Oregon.  It  is 
said  to  be  in  varying  abundance  over  much  of  the  forested 
area  of  Oregon.  In  its  natural  domain  it  is  able  to  adapt 
itself  to  varying  situations,  running  from  moist,  low,  and 
even  wet  ground  up  to  dry  hill-  and  mountain-sides.  As  far 
as  known,  it  has  absolutely  failed  to  encourage  any  belief 
that  its  cultivation  may  prove  a  success  anywhere  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  its  chosen  habitat,  although  it  is 
reported  as  doing  well  in  Europe.  It  attains  a  magnificent 
growth,  however,  on  the  dry  mountain  slopes  of  its  natural 
home.  It  is  seldom  found  less  than  two  thousand  or  more 
than  seven  thousand  feet  from  sea  level. 

The  tree  frequently  reaches  a  height  of  over  two  hun- 
dred feet,  with  a  diameter  of  six  or  seven  feet  in  moist 
ground,  but  on  dry  mountain-sides  it  seldom  reaches  those 
figures.  Unfortunately  the  tree  is  of  slow  growth.  The 
leaves  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Eastern  Tamarack, 
though  a  trifle  longer,  and  are  shed  annually.  While  the 
bark  of  the  Eastern  Tamarack  is  thin,  that  on  old  West- 
ern trees  is  frequently  six  inches  thick  from  the  base  to 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  above  the  ground.  Like  nearly  all 
conifers,  it  is  light-demanding,  and  when  grown  crowded, 
sends  up  a  slightly  tapering,  straight  stem,  free  of  limbs 
to  a  height,  occasionally,  of  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  nar- 
row, short,  pyramidal  crown  running  to  a  sharp  point.    It  is 


222  THE  LARCHES 

long-lived,  sometimes  reaching  the  age  of  five  hundred 
years.  Trees  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  in  diameter  are 
from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  years  old. 

The  heartwood  is  heavy  and  exceedingly  hard  for  a  coni- 
fer. It  is  compact,  strong,  with  close,  satiny  grain,  of  a  light 
red  color,  with  thin  and  nearly  white  sapwood,  and  durable 
when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
The  difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood  is  dis- 
tinct both  in  color  and  hardness.  It  is  used  for  general 
construction  and  especially  for  interior  finish  and  cabinet- 
work, where  its  red  color,  and  the  readiness  with  which  it 
takes  on  a  fine  finish,  make  it  a  great  favorite  with  the 
joiner  and  cabinetmaker. 

It  is  a  prolific  seed-bearer,  but  not  always  regular.  The 
cones  are  from  one  to  one  and  one  fourth  inches  long, 
with  a  needle-like  termination  to  the  bracts  which  lie  be- 
tween the  scales,  and  in  this  feature  they  slightly  resemble 
those  of  the  Douglas  Fir.  The  seeds  are  small,  with  a  thin, 
frail  wing  about  twice  as  large  as  the  seed.  They  have  a 
high  rate  of  fertility,  but  abundant  moisture  is  required  for 
both  germination  and  the  growth  of  seedlings. 

Whether  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  propagate  it  in  its 
natural  habitat  is  not  known.  Nurserymen  in  the  East  have 
failed  to  secure  good  results  in  attempts  to  grow  it.  It  is  a 
slow  grower,  and  should  seedlings  be  successfully  grown 
in  the  nursery,  transplanting  them  into  the  soil  of  a  moun- 
tain-side would  be  fraught  with  uncertainty.  Quite  likely 
seed  planting  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  would  be  best. 
Experiment  alone  can  determine  what  course  must  be  pur- 
sued to  aid  Nature  in  propagating  it.  The  value  of  the  tree 
for  economic  purposes,  notwithstanding  its  slow  growth, 
should  stimulate  efforts  to  reproduce  it  in  some  way,  as  it 
grows  where  but  few  species  as  valuable  can  grow.  Its  thick 
bark  must  serve  to  protect  the  old  trees  from  fire,  and  if 
fire  should  kill  the  younger  growth  there  would  still  be 
seed  trees  left,  unless  the  lumberman's  axe  should  prevent. 


EUROPEAN  LARCH 


European  Larch  :  Larix  europma 

This  deciduous  and  foreign  conifer  is  quite  similar 
in  general  appearance  to  our  native  Eastern  Tamarack 
(^Larix  laricind),  but  is  unlike  it  in  choice  of  soils.  Its 
natural  home  is  in  central  and  northern  Europe.  It  is 
abundant  in  the  mountain  regions  of  France,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland,  but  is  probably  most  extensively  planted 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  It  thrives 
best  there  on  the  lower  mountain  slopes,  and  delights  in 
a  moderately  fertile  and  well-drained  soil,  but  will  grow 
fairly  well  on  a  poor  one  if  not  too  decidedly  sterile.  It  is 
a  deep-rooted  tree  and  cannot  stand  much  moisture  in  the 
subsoil.  It  will  start  vigorously  in  such  soils,  but  soon  fails. 
In  all  this  it  is  the  direct  opposite  of  our  Eastern  Larch, 
but  somewhat  resembles  the  Western  one. 

At  home  in  the  forest  it  develops  into  a  tall,  straight, 
and  somewhat  tapering  stem,  clean  of  limbs  for  one  half  or 
more  of  its  height.  It  is  not  unusual  for  it  to  reach  a  dia- 
meter of  three  feet  and  a  height  of  ninety  to  one  hundred 
feet.  In  the  open  it  takes  on  a  distinctly  pyramidal  form, 
with  its  lower  limbs  resting  on  the  ground,  and  running  to 
a  sharp  apex  at  the  top.  In  this  it  closely  resembles  the 
Spruces  and  Firs.  It  is  light-demanding  in  the  extreme  and 
appears  to  prefer  other  species  for  its  near  neighbors,  and 
it  is  claimed  that  it  is  never  found  in  pure  stands  in  natur- 
ally planted  forests.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  in  this  excels 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  all  other  high-grade  conifers,  especially 
on  dry  soils.  Probably  no  other  tree  except  the  Chestnut 
and  Catalpawill  produce  fence  posts  and  telegraph  and  other 
poles  to  carry  electric  wires  of  so  great  durability  and  so 
soon  as  will  the  European  Larch  in  favorable  locations. 
Dr.  Hugh  P.  Baker  ^  states :  "  There  are  several  groves 
in  Iowa  planted  from  twenty  to  thirty  years  ago  from 
which  telephone  poles  are  being  sold  at  from  $1.00  to  $1.15 
^  Iowa  State  College  Bulletin,  No.  90. 


224  THE  LARCHES 

per  pole,  and  a  Larch  grove  on  the  campus,  planted  in 
1873,  with  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  trees  in  one  block, 
shows  an  average  of  forty-seven  feet  in  height  and  a  diameter 
of  seven  inches." 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  and  very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  In  its  home  the  wood  is  flexible,  close- 
grained,  and  of  considerable  strength,  but  it  is  said  to  be 
brittle  when  grown  on  the  rich  prairie  soils  of  our  Western 
States.  When  grown  on  moist,  fertile  soil  the  heartwood 
is  yellowish  white,  with  nearly  white  sapwood,  but  the 
heartwood  is  a  reddish  brown  and  much  harder  when  grown 
on  less  fertile  and  higher  ground.  It  is  largely  used  for  gen- 
eral construction,  poles  of  all  kinds,  railroad  ties,  ship- 
building, and  all  other  purposes  where  moderate  strength 
or  long  exemption  from  decay  is  desired. 

The  tree  is  a  fairly  good  seeder,  but  does  not  produce 
seeds  in  early  life.  The  seeds  are  in  small  upright  cones 
and  mature  the  first  year.  At  present  seeds  must  be  secured 
from  abroad,  for  few  trees  in  this  country  are  old  enough 
to  produce  them.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  propagation. 
The  same  treatment  should  prevail  as  with  White  Pine. 
The  seed  does  not  appear  to  have  a  high  percentage  of  fer- 
tility. A  production  of  20,000  to  25,000  plants  to  a  pound 
of  seed  containing  quite  70,000  seems  to  be  about  the 
average. 

Seedlings  may  be  transplanted  into  the  forest  when  two 
years  old,  but  had  better  be  given  another  year  in  the  nurs- 
ery. As  they  are  endowed  with  a  fairly  good  fibrous  root 
system,  transplanting  in  the  nursery  is  not  so  essential  as 
with  some  conifers,  although  such  treatment  would  give 
the  trees  greater  strength  to  overcome  their  foes  in  the 
forest,  notwithstanding  that  they  make  a  more  rapid  growth 
in  early  life  than  most  of  the  conifers. 

We  have  much  to  learn  about  growing  this  tree  in  our 
forests,  and  any  opinion  which  may  now  be  ventured  is 
liable  to  error.  This  much  we  know  about  it  in  its  natural 
habitat :  it  does  not  submit  to  very  close  planting,  nor  does 


EUROPEAN  LARCH  225 

it  appear  to  thrive  well  in  pure  stands.  Just  how  far  apart 
to  plant  the  trees  in  the  forest  and  just  what  trees  to  mix 
with  them  must  be  determined  by  experience  yet  to  be  en- 
joyed. Probably  White  Pine,  or  perhaps  Norway  Spruce, 
as  in  Europe,  may  do  well  to  mix  with  them.  Or,  if  broad- 
leaf  trees  be  chosen,  White  Ash,  Tulip-tree,  or  White 
Elm  may  do.  However,  as  the  tree  is  deciduous,  it  would 
seem  best  to  plant  evergreens  with  it,  to  keep  the  forest 
floor  shaded  in  winter.  As  it  starts  growth  very  early  in 
the  spring,  transplanting  should  take  place  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  it  might  be  well  to  heel  the 
plants  in  as  soon  as  they  can  be  removed  in  the  spring. 

The  tree  sometimes  suffers  in  Europe  from  attacks  of 
insects  and  a  fungus  disease.  The  latter  frequently  plays 
havoc,  as  it  is  practically  uncontrollable.  Thus  far  little 
damage  has  come  to  plantations  in  this  country  from  either 
source.  Taken  altogether,  the  tree  is  one  of  much  promise, 
and  thorough  and  careful  efforts  should  be  put  forth  to 
determine  how  far  we  can  go  towards  making  it  as  useful 
here  as  it  is  in  its  natural  home. 


THE  SEQUOIAS 

There  are  two  species  of  Sequoias,  both  of  which  are 
indigenous  to  the  Pacific  Slope.  One  is  the  Big  Tree 
(^Sequoia  washingtoniana')^  and  the  other  the  Redwood 
{Sequoia  sempervirens).  They  are  the  only  remaining  ones 
of  several  species  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
days  when  mammals  first  appeared  on  the  earth.  Their  ex- 
istence in  olden  times  is  shown  by  their  remains,  which  are 
to  be  found  in  the  rocks  of  the  Tertiary  and  Cretaceous 
periods.  Then,  as  now,  they  grew  in  a  warm  and,  doubt- 
less, moist  climate,  but  the  domain  in  which  they  then 
grew  now  lies  near,  and  in  part  within,  the  Arctic  Circle. 
They  and  the  Bald  Cypress  are  distant  relatives.  They  are 
among  the  tallest  and  are  the  most  massive  trees  in  the  world ; 
and  some  of  them,  still  in  life  and  vigorous,  are  among  the 
oldest  if  not  the  very  oldest  living  things.  They  are  con- 
fined by  climatic  conditions  to  a  limited  area,  and  efforts 
to  grow  them  elsewhere  in  the  United  States  have  not 
proved  successful ;  yet  they  appear  to  thrive  well  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  and  our  inability  to  enlarge  the  area  in 
which  they  will  grow  should  stimulate  a  determination  that 
they  shall  not  be  sacrificed  to  a  greed  of  gain,  or  be  the 
victims  of  a  spirit  of  vandalism. 

Big  Tree  :  Sequoia  washingtoniana 

There  has  been  some  dispute  over  the  technical  name 
which  this  tree  should  bear,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  is  with 
Sequoia  washingtoniana  as  against  Sequoia  wellingtonia^ 
and  it  is  in  entire  harmony  with  patriotic  sentiment.  Its 
natural  range  is  confined  to  California,  and  is  there  limited 
to  the  west  side  of  the  Sierra  from  the  southern  part  of 
Placer  County  to  Tulare  County,  at  an  elevation  ranging 


:KE>j.  with  srOAR   I'Im;.     .i  -;■  ;:\    \i  i.i.mw-   i-j 
WHITE   FIR.     SIERRA  NEVADA.   CALIFORNIA 
Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


BIG   TREE  227 

from  five  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 
While  growing  largely  in  groves,  it  is  found  scattered 
among  other  species.  The  total  area  in  which  it  grows  com- 
prises about  fifty  square  miles,  and  as  it  is  probably  limited 
to  this  region,  it  can  cut  but  a  small  figure  as  a  lumber- 
producing  tree.  Many  of  the  giants  now  standing  —  and 
which,  if  permitted,  would  live  for  several  thousand  years 
—  will  undoubtedly  be  cut,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
only  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  -per  cent  of  the  contents  of 
the  average  tree  is  secured,  owing  to  breakage  in  falling, 
failure  to  take  what  may  be  deemed  of  inferior  quality, 
high  stumps,  and  loss  through  splitting  logs  to  reduce  them 
to  a  size  that  can  be  sawed  into  lumber.  Add  to  this  the 
destruction  by  fire  or  changed  surroundings  of  practically 
all  young  growth  on  the  area  cut  over,  and  the  danger  of 
extinction  is  apparent.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the 
United  States  Government  has  secured  some  of  the  best 
groves,  which  have  been  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  vandals, 
and  it  is  devoutly  wished  that  more  will  be  secured. 

Their  dimensions  are  enormous.  The  largest  trees  are 
from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  and  thirty 
feet  high  and  from  twenty  to  twenty-seven  feet  in  diame- 
ter next  above  the  swelled  base.  Old  trees  are  clear  of 
branches  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet 
or  more.  They  are  long-lived,  reaching  an  age  of  three 
thousand  to  four  thousand  years,  and  possibly  more. 

The  wood  is  a  brilliant  rose-purple  red  in  color  when 
first  cut,  changing  later  to  a  dull  purplish  brown.  It  is  very 
light,  brittle,  soft,  varying  in  grain,  during  the  first  four 
hundred  or  five  hundred  years'  growth,  from  coarse  to  very 
fine  as  the  tree  approaches  old  age.  Containing  a  large 
amount  of  tannin,  the  wood  is  very  durable.  It  is  used  for 
general  construction,  shingles,  siding,  and  almost  all  pur- 
poses to  which  a  soft,  durable  wood  can  be  put,  but  it  is 
largely  sold  in  the  market  as  Redwood,  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  purchaser  is  not  wronged. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  and  if  permitted  would  reproduce 


228  THE  SEQUOIAS 

itself  without  aid;  or  it  can  be  aided  by  planting  seeds  or 
growing  trees  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting  them  into  the 
forest  in  their  natural  habitat.  Probably  no  effort  will  be 
made  to  restore  it  where  cut  off  unless  the  task  is  under- 
taken by  the  United  States  Government  or  the  State  of 
California.  It  is  not  known  what,  if  anything,  has  been 
done  in  that  line. 

Redwood  :  Sequoia  sempervirens 

Here  is  another  mighty  giant  of  the  forest.  While  it  does 
not  grow  to  as  great  a  diameter  as  the  Big  Tree  it  excels  it 
in  height.  Trees  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hun- 
dred feet  high  and  from  eight  to  twelve  or  even  fifteen  feet 
in  diameter,  immediately  above  the  swelled  base,  are  not 
uncommon,  while  old  and  exceptionally  large  ones  have  been 
found  from  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  to  three  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high  and  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Old  trees 
are  clear  of  limbs  for  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  dense 
forests.  It  has  the  habit,  possessed  by  no  other  valuable 
species  of  conifer,  of  sending  up  sprouts  from  its  roots  that 
will  grow  into  valuable  timber  for  the  saw.  "When  growing 
in  the  open,  trees  up  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  show  a 
narrow,  regular,  conical  crown  from  the  ground  up,  the 
lower  limbs  drooping,  the  middle  ones  nearly  horizontal, 
and  the  upper  ones  slanting  upward.  Being  light-demand- 
ing, the  lower  limbs,  if  in  a  dense  or  approximately  dense 
stand,  die  and  drop  off.  In  old  age  the  whole  crown  is 
changed,  and  a  few  straggling  branches  extend  far  out  and 
the  crown  becomes  irregular,  open,  and  sometimes  rounded. 

Its  natural  range  is  a  belt  along  the  Pacific  Coast  from 
southwestern  Oregon  to  Santa  Cruz,  in  California.  The 
greatest  width  of  the  belt  does  not  exceed  thirty,  and  at 
some  points  not  over  ten  miles.  Its  greatest  development  is 
in  Mendocino,  Del  Norte,  and  Humboldt  counties,  California, 
where  it  may  be  found  along  the  valleys  and  against  the 
mountain-sides,  but  nowhere  more  than  2800  feet  above  the 


REDWOOD  229 

ocean.  There  is  a  very  fine  grove  near  Santa  Cruz  that  is 
not  over  six  miles  from  the  ocean  or  more  than  two  hundred 
feet  above  it.  It  is  found  nowhere  outside  of  California 
except  on  a  small  area  in  southwestern  Oregon,  and  all 
attempts  to  grow  it  elsewhere  in  the  United  States  have 
proved  unsuccessful,  although  it  appears  to  thrive  in  Eu- 
rope. It  revels  in  a  moist  atmosphere  and  evidently  cannot 
do  without  it. 

It  is  being  largely  cut  for  lumber  in  the  counties  named, 
and  if  the  present  rate  and  method  of  cutting  are  kept  up, 
it  will  be  practically  exhausted  in  thirty  years.  The  method 
of  harvesting  is,  to  say  the  least,  unique.  The  trees  are 
felled,  the  bark  peeled  off,  the  limbs  lopped,  and  the  tree 
lies  untouched  until  the  bark  and  limbs  are  dry  enough  to 
burn,  when  fire  is  set  and  the  whole  tract  burned  over. 
This  is  done  to  get  limbs  and  bark  out  of  the  way,  the 
latter  sometimes  being  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  thick.  The 
tree  is  then  cut  into  logs,  and  such  as  are  too  large  for  the 
sawmill  are  split  open  with  powder  or  dynamite  —  some- 
times even  quartered.  Seldom  is  a  tree  cut  for  lumber  under 
twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter.  Those  under  that 
are  left  to  be  killed  by  fire,  to  be  blown  down,  or  to  die 
from  changed  surroundings.  It  yields  from  forty  thousand  to 
seventy-five  thousand  board  feet  to  the  acre,  and  not  infre- 
quently three  hundred  thousand  feet.  A  single  case  is  re- 
ported where  one  million  feet  were  secured  from  one  acre, 
but  the  percentage  of  loss  is  very  great,  the  same  as  with 
the  Big  Trees. 

The  wood  is  about  as  heavy  as  White  Pine,  very  soft 
brittle,  of  a  purplish,  red-brown  color,  and  very  durable 
It  is  rather  dull  when  varnished,  but  makes  excellent  inte 
rior  finish,  and  is  used  for  general  construction,  siding 
shingles,  and  foundations  for  buildings,  where  it  is  com 
monly  placed  without  anything  intervening  between  it  and 
the  ground.  It  is  claimed  that  fence  posts  have  lasted 
thirty-five  years  without  showing  decay.  It  takes  paint  and 
glue  well.    There  is  little  difference  between  spring  and 


230  THE  SEQUOIAS 

summer  wood,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  small  and  incon- 
spicuous. It  is  very  straight-grained  and  splits  easily.  Rail- 
road ties  and  fence  palings  are  split  out  and  require  little 
dressing,  and  shingles  six  inches  wide  and  three  feet  long, 
called  "shakes,"  are  split  and  used  without  further  labor 
being  bestowed  upon  them.  It  shrinks  endwise  appreciably 
when  seasoning.  Woodworkers  assert  that  the  wood  dulls 
planes  and  other  tools  used  in  working  it.  It  is  not  valua- 
ble for  fuel,  although  used  for  that  to  some  extent,  but 
mainly  because  no  better  can  be  secured  in  the  vicinity. 

The  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder,  but  the  percentage  of  fer- 
tility is  low,  not  exceeding  twenty-five  per  cent.  The  cones 
are  small  and  mature  in  one  season.  If  permitted,  natural 
reproduction  from  seed  would  take  place,  but  as  it  sprouts 
freely  from  the  living  tree  as  well  as  from  cut  stumps,  re- 
production would  surely  result  if  not  seriously  interfered 
with,  and,  therefore,  seed-planting  would  be  wholly  un- 
necessary if  fire  were  kept  out,  unless  additional  areas  were 
sought.  No  one  of  our  valuable  timber  trees  is  more  sus- 
ceptible to  natural  reproduction  than  this,  and  yet  nothing 
is  being  done  to  encourage  or  even  permit  it. 


THE  OAKS:   WHITE   OAK  CLASS 

Of  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  Oaks  in  the 
world  nearly  fifty  can  be  credited  to  the  United  States,  and 
of  these  not  more  than  fifteen,  if  as  many,  can  be  classed 
as  valuable  timber  trees.  The  lumber  trade  makes  three 
general  classes,  Red,  White,  and  Live  Oak,  and  of  these 
the  White  Oak  class  is  by  far  the  most  important.  While 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  character  of  the  lumber  produced 
from  the  several  species  of  the  White  Oak  class,  the  con- 
sumer, unless  an  expert,  will  seldom  detect  the  difference, 
nor  will  he  be  much  the  loser  if  he  does  not.  Except  for 
special  purposes,  such  as  tight  cooperage  and  the  like,  the 
lumber  of  nearly  all  species  of  White  Oak  now  manufac- 
tured is  equally  serviceable.  And  so,  too,  it  is  with  the  Red 
Oak  class  —  one  tree  being  about  as  good  as  another.  But 
there  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  two  classes.  There  are 
certain  features  in  the  wood  of  the  White  Oak  class  that 
the  Red  Oak  class  does  not  possess,  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  should  always  be  understood  and  insisted 
upon  by  both  buyer  and  seller.  The  division  is  one  based 
not  only  on  the  structural  and  economic  differences  in  the 
wood,  but  on  botanical  disagreement.  In  the  White  Oak 
class  the  wood  is  stronger,  more  durable,  especially  when 
exposed  to  the  weather  or  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
is  adapted  to  more  economic  purposes.  One  of  the  botani- 
cal differences  is  with  few  exceptions  that  the  seeds  of  the 
White  Oak  class  mature  in  one  year  while  those  of  the 
Red  Oak  class  require  two  years.^ 

^  There  are  two  Oaks  on  the  Pacific  Slope  clearly  belonging'  to  the  White 
Oak  class  that  require  two  years  for  their  acorns  to  mature,  and  two  as  clearly 
of  the  Red  Oak  class  that  mature  theirs  in  one  year.  In  all  other  respects 
they  agree  with  their  respective  classes.  They  are  of  no  importance  as  tim- 
ber trees. 


232  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

The  possible  botanical  range  of  Live  Oak  h  limited  to  a 
narrow  strip  along  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States  and  in 
California,  the  latter,  however,  producing  a  very  inferior 
grade  of  lumber.  The  large  use  of  steel  in  shipbuilding  has 
greatly  lessened  the  demand  for  Live  Oak,  and  its  repro- 
duction by  planting  would  hardly  be  a  paying  investment. 
By  reasonable  care  natural  reproduction  will  be  quite  likely 
to  provide  a  sufficient  supply.  Its  habit  of  branching  out  low 
down  renders  it  unsuited  for  saw  timber  except  in  short 
lengths.  Its  crotches  and  crooked  limbs  are  used  as  knees 
and  other  like  forms  in  boat-  and  ship-building. 

White  Oak  Class.  All  the  lumber  produced  from  trees 
named  in  this  paragraph  is  commercially  classed  and  sold 
as  White  Oak  :  White  Oak  (  Quercus  alba),  Post  Oak  (  Q. 
minor),  Burr  Oak  (  Q.  macrocarpa),  Overcup  Oak  (  Q.  lyr- 
ata),  Swamp  White  Oak  {Q.  platanoldes).  Cow  Oak  {Q. 
wiicAawxw),  Yellow  Oak  (^Q.  acuminata)  and  Chestnut  Oak 
Q.  prinus),  with  several  others  of  less  note. 

Red  Oak  Class.  Lumber  cut  from  the  following  list  of 
trees  is  classed  and  sold  as  Red  Oak :  Red  Oak  (  Quercus 
rubra),  Pin  Oak  (^Q.  palustris).  Black  Oak  QQ.  velutina)^ 
Spanish  Oak  (^Q.  pagodcefolia),  Southern  Red  Oak  QQ. 
texana),  with  half  a  score  or  more  of  no  very  great  im- 
portance, and  not  worthy  of  cultivation  when  more  valua- 
ble ones  can  be  grown  in  their  stead. 

White  Oak  :  Quercus  alba 

Of  all  the  broadleaf  trees  of  America,  White  Oak  is  the 
most  important.  For  some  purposes  there  is  no  substitute 
thus  far  known,  and  its  rapid  destruction  attests  the  estima- 
tion in  which  it  is  held.  When  standing  in  favorable  loca- 
tions, trees  have  been  found  over  one  hundred  feet  high,  clean 
of  limb  for  sixty  or  seventy-five  feet,  with  slightly  tapering 
body,  and  over  five  feet  in  diameter  breast  high.  The  area 
of  its  natural  range  is  great.  Its  boundary  stretches  from 
Maine  to  northern  Florida,  from  there  to  easttern  Texas, 


WHITE  OAK  233 

from  Texas  north  to  central  Wisconsin,  and  from  there 
across  Michigan  to  the  Canadian  line  and  along  that  line 
to  central  Maine  and  thence  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  the  valley 
of  the  Ohio  River  are  the  regions  of  its  best  development, 
yet  vast  quantities  of  this  noble  tree  have  been  found  else- 
where. In  many  sections  of  our  country  there  once  stood 
pure  forests  of  it,  and  in  others  it  constituted  more  than 
one  half  the  stand. 

As  with  other  trees,  a  rich  suitable  soil  is  conducive  to 
a  vigorous  growth,  and  the  rapidity  of  that  growth  and  the 
size  of  the  tree  depend  upon  favorable  conditions  and  sur- 
roundings. Vigorous  and  rapidly  growing  Oaks  produce 
the  best  lumber.  On  dry,  rocky  ridges  the  tree  grows  slowly 
and  will  not  there  attain  a  large  size  of  body,  but  appears 
to  reach  a  limit  beyond  which  it  cannot  go,  and  the  wood 
is  not  of  the  best  quality.  It  is  decidedly  a  light-demanding 
tree.  In  the  open,  it  will  grow  a  large,  short,  and  rapidly 
tapering  stem,  with  wide-spreading,  large  and  frequently 
specialized  limbs,  and  assumes  a  rounded,  low  crown ;  but 
when  crowded  in  a  forest,  it  will  shoot  up  a  straight  stem, 
free  from  large  limbs  until  well  up,  when  it  will  throw  out 
spreading  ones  and  form  a  somewhat  irregular  crown,  but 
in  the  main  a  round  one.  As  a  rule  the  stem  tapers  but 
little  when  crowded  until  the  large  limbs  are  reached.  In 
some  localities  small  bunches  of  twigs  will  be  found  along 
the  stem,  even  in  quite  a  dense  shade,  but  these  never  grow 
large  and  do  little  injury  to  the  lumber. 

The  wood  is  strong,  hard,  heavy,  tough,  rather  coarse- 
grained, does  not  split  easily,  and  shows  a  distinct  mark- 
ing between  spring  and  summer  growth.  It  is  durable  when 
exposed  to  the  weather  or  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The 
large  amount  of  acid  in  the  wood  serves  to  protect  it  from 
the  attacks  of  many  of  the  fungi.  The  heartwood  is  of  a 
rather  yellowish  light-brown  color,  with  slightly  lighter  and 
not  very  thick  sapwood.  Its  medullary  rays  are  large  and 
conspicuous,  and  when  lumber  is  sawed  radially  —  "  quar- 


234  WHITE   OAK   CLASS 

ter-sawed  "  is  the  commercial  and  trade  term  —  it  is  one  of 
the  most  esteemed  among  our  native  woods  for  cabinet- 
work, interior  finish,  and  floors,  only  Black  Walnut  and 
Black  Cherry  contesting  with  it  for  supremacy.  Large 
quantities  of  it  are  cut  into  veneers  for  interior  finish  and 
the  like.  It  takes  high  polish,  and,  when  not  covered  with 
artificial  stain,  grows  richer  in  color  and  transparency  of 
texture  as  age  creeps  on.  The  annual  layers  are  very  dis- 
tinct and  show  several  rows  of  pores  or  ducts  which  must 
be  closed  with  some  kind  of  "  wood  filler  "  before  varnish 
is  applied.  It  seasons  well,  but  when  sawed  from  young 
and  rapidly  growing  trees  is  liable  to  spring  and  warp  and 
also  check  if  not  properly  piled  and  cared  for.  When 
sawed  tangentially  —  "  bastard  fashion,"  "  plain,"  or  "  flat- 
sawed," —  its  medullary  rays  are  starting-points  for  checks, 
and  decay  enters  there  when  exposed.  No  wood  has  a  wider 
range  of  usefulness.  It  is  used  in  shipbuilding  and  for  trestles, 
bridges,  piles,  railroad  ties,  carriagework,  agricultural  im- 
plements, and  tight  and  loose  cooperage,  as  well  as  for  interior 
finish  and  furniture.  For  vessels  containing  wine  and  other 
spirits  no  satisfactory  substitute  has  been  found.  For  pur- 
poses where  strength  and  durability  are  desired  it  is  uni- 
versally sought. 

White  Oak  is  at  best  a  slow  grower,  but  when  fairly 
established  it  continues  in  a  very  regular  and  uniform  way 
to  a  good  old  age,  three  hundred  years  or  more.  As  indi- 
cated, it  cannot  stand  much  crowding,  and  it  is  doubtful  if 
more  than  one  hundred  trees  to  the  acre,  if  so  many,  should  be 
left  to  mature  if  the  best  results  for  sawed  lumber  are 
sought,  but  the  trees  must  be  crowded  in  early  life  and  until 
they  attain  a  proper  height.  There  is  little  probability,  how- 
ever, that  future  generations  will  see  much  White  Oak  al- 
lowed to  grow  to  a  profitable  size  for  that  purpose.  It  will 
be  cut  for  railroad  ties  and  like  uses  as  soon  as  large 
enough,  which  will  be  when  the  trees  are  from  sixty  to 
eighty  years  of  age.  To  let  them  stand  long  enough  for 
good  width  of  boards  would  require  more  than  twice  that 


WHITE   OAK  235 

period,  and  the  harvest  would  probably  not  be  worth  enough 
more  to  make  up  for  care  and  interest  on  the  investment. 

The  natural  reproduction  of  White  Oak  must  come  either 
through  seed-scattering  by  animals  —  mice,  squirrels,  and 
birds  —  or  by  sprouting  from  the  stump  of  a  cut  tree  or 
the  roots  of  a  decaying  one.  The  acorns  are  too  heavy  to 
be  blown  by  the  wind  and  they  naturally  spread  no  farther 
than  the  limbs  of  the  tree  extend,  and  if  they  germinate 
there  they  will  not  thrive  for  want  of  light ;  and  thus  we 
are  left  mainly  to  the  animals  named  for  the  scattering  of 
the  seeds  of  this  tree,  as  we  are  for  all  the  heavy-seeded  or 
nut-bearing  trees. 

Sprout  reproduction  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  any 
great  extent,  although  cut  stumps  and  decaying  trees  will 
throw  up  some  shoots,  but  the  habit  is  not  general.  Its  ten- 
dency to  do  this  is  much  overestimated,  through  a  misun- 
derstanding of  the  causes  which  frequently  result  in  two  or 
more  trees  springing  from  one  and  the  same  root  system, 
which  are  mistaken  for  sprouts.  Such  are  not  necessarily 
sprouts,  as  the  term  is  generally  understood,  nor  do  they 
produce  an  increase  of  useful  timber.  The  seedling  White 
Oak  has  a  slow  and  frail  growth  for  the  first  three  or  four 
years,  while  the  tap-root  is  running  deep  into  the  ground. 
If  an  injury  occurs  to  the  terminal  bud  of  the  tender  stem, 
the  lower  buds  will  be  forced  into  growth  by  the  strong  and 
vigorous  root  system  which  has  been  developed,  and  two  or 
more  stems  will  spring  from  the  same  root,  each  struggling 
to  be  leader.  Sometimes  —  and  quite  frequently  —  a  one-  or 
two-year-old  seedling  will  develop  two  terminal  buds  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  and  the  next  year  both  will  grow.  Fre- 
quently one  of  these  will  outgrow  the  other.  Such  growth 
is  not  "  sprouting,"  nor  is  it  reproduction,  for  all  are  of  the 
same  age,  and  from  the  same  roots.  Genuine  sprout  growth 
is  weak  at  best,  and  timber  suitable  for  anything  larger 
than  railroad  ties,  fence  posts,  or  cordwood  should  not  be 
expected  from  it,  and  one  crop  of  sprout  timber  will  so 
weaken  the  root  system  that  it  will  either  die  outright  or 


236  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

the  second  cutting  will  be  of  little  value.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  rapid  natural  reproduction  is  unlikely  to  occur 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  Moreover,  the 
tree  does  not  bear  fruit  in  early  life  in  the  forest  —  seldom 
under  fifty  years. 

Having  a  tap-root  well  developed  when  young,  and  suf- 
fering severely  from  its  loss,  it  is  manifest  that  growing 
the  trees  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting  them  into  the  forest 
would  be  quite  likely  to  result  in  frequent  failure.  It  is  not 
denied  that  the  little  tree  will  recover,  to  a  certain  extent, 
from  loss  of  the  tap-root,  which  will  inevitably  occur  when 
removed  from  the  nursery,  but  it  is  well  known  that  it  takes 
a  long  time  to  do  it,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  ever  does  fully 
overcome  it. 

The  remaining  method  of  growing  a  White  Oak  forest 
is  to  plant  the  acorns  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  during 
life,  and  this  is  evidently  the  best  way.  It  has  some  draw- 
backs. The  principal  one  is  that  the  young  trees  are  liable 
to  be  overcome  and  smothered  by  grass,  weeds,  or  bushes 
growing  on  the  ground  where  planted,  and  it  might  be 
necessary,  in  some  cases,  to  remove  such  from  around  the 
little  trees  for  the  first  few  years.  Then  there  is  danger 
that  mice  or  squirrels  may  dig  up  the  seeds  after  they  are 
planted,  for  the  acorns  are  freely  eaten  by  them.  To  avoid 
this,  planting  would  be  best  done  in  the  spring,  the  acorns 
being  properly  cared  for  over  winter. 

The  acorns  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  either 
planted  at  once  or  put  in  layers  with  moist  sand  and  kept 
in  a  cool  place  until  planted.  If  not  kept  cold  —  freezing 
will  do  no  harm  —  the  acorns  are  liable  to  sprout.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  thing  to  find  them  sprouted  in  the  fall  where 
they  have  been  covered  with  leaves  and  kept  moist,  yet  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  become  dry.  In  planting,  a  hole 
can  be  made  with  a  sharp  stick,  or  one  dug  with  a  mattock, 
—  the  latter  by  far  the  better  way,  —  and  two  or  three 
acorns  dropped  in  and  covered  about  one  and  one  half 
inches  deep.  If  the  ground  is  naturally  dry  and  loose,  two 


WHITE  OAK  237 

inches  will  not  be  too  deep,  but  if  moist  and  compact,  an 
inch  may  do.  The  number  of  acorns  named  is  to  insure  a 
tree  in  each  place,  as  all  of  them  may  not  prove  fertile,  nor 
will  all  survive.  It  would  be  best  to  scatter  the  acorns  when 
dropping  them,  and  the  superfluous  trees  can  be  removed 
when  the  best  one  has  become  firmly  established. 

The  distance  apart  that  the  seeds  should  be  planted  must 
be  determined  from  the  character  of  the  ground  and  the 
location,  and  whether  other  trees  are  to  be  planted  with 
them.  If  alone,  they  may  be  put  from  five  to  six  feet  apart 
each  way,  and  when  the  time  for  thinning  arrives  some 
may,  and  doubtless  will,  be  large  enough  for  fence  posts  ; 
but  if  planted  ten  feet  apart,  some  other  species  of  trees 
could  be  set  between  them  to  force  the  Oaks  to  seek  light 
and  drop  their  lower  branches  and  the  nurse  trees  be  re- 
moved later.  When  the  Oaks  have  attained  a  suitable  height, 
thinning  should  take  place  gradually,  leaving  at  last  only 
as  many  as  can  be  grown  in  a  thrifty  condition,  which  will 
probably  never  exceed  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to  the 
acre  —  more  likely  a  smaller  number.  As  Chestnut  and 
White  Oak  are  largely  associated  in  natural  forests,  the 
former  would  be  a  good  "  nurse  tree  "  to  plant  with  the 
latter,  but  the  Chestnuts  should  not  be  planted  until  the 
second  or  even  third  or  fourth  year  after  the  acorns,  for 
the  reason  that  the  Chestnut  grows  much  faster  than  the 
Oak.  When  the  Chestnuts  are  cut,  they  will  throw  up 
sprouts  and  thus  preserve  the  forest  floor  in  good  condition. 
The  great  value  of  White  Oak  lumber  will  certainly  justify 
attempts  to  grow  extensive  forests  of  that  tree,  notwith- 
standing its  slow  growth.  Unless  this  is  done,  it  will  soon 
be  practically  exterminated  and  the  loss  greatly  felt.  The 
great  importance  of  the  tree  is  the  justification  offered  for 
this  lengthy  consideration  of  its  characteristics,  growth, 
and  cultivation. 


WHITE  OAK  CLASS 


Swamp  White  Oak  :  Quercus  platanoides 

The  common  name  of  this  tree  indicates  its  habitat  as 
correctly  as  it  does  the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  In  gen- 
eral appearance,  however,  it  quite  resembles  the  Chestnut 
Oak,  and  could  appropriately  be  called  Swamp  Chestnut 
Oak.  Both  its  leaves  and  bark  more  closely  resemble 
Chestnut  Oak  than  they  do  White  Oak,  yet  its  wood  is 
very  similar  in  appearance  and  quality  to  that  of  the  lat- 
ter tree,  and  it  is  sold  as  such  with  little  or  no  wrong  to 
the  purchaser.  Its  natural  range  is  from  the  New  England 
States  westward  to  Iowa  and  Missouri,  southward  along 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  northern  Georgia,  and  in  the 
East  from  Maine  to  Virginia.  It  is  nowhere  very  abundant, 
though  it  can  occasionally  be  found  in  small  groves.  Its 
best  development  is  in  western  New  York,  northwestern 
Pennsylvania,  and  northern  Ohio.  It  may  be  seen  along 
streams  in  low,  rich  ground,  around  and  along  the  borders 
of  and  even  in  swamps,  mingled  with  other  trees  that  flour- 
ish in  moist  or  wet  ground.  It  is  only  moderately  light- 
demanding. 

The  tree  has  been  known  to  reach  a  height  of  one  hun- 
dred feet  with  a  diameter  of  seven  or  eight  feet ;  but  such 
growth  is  extremely  rare.  It  seldom  exceeds  seventy-five 
feet  in  height  or  three  feet  in  diameter.  Standing  where 
it  is  constantly  supplied  with  moisture,  its  growth,  after 
the  first  five  or  six  years,  is  quite  even  and  rapid.  Notwith- 
standing that  it  does  not  object  to  wet  feet,  but  rather 
prefers  that  condition,  it  will  grow  well  in  any  moist,  rich 
soil. 

The  wood  is  hard  and  heavy,  tough,  strong,  close-grained, 
and  very  durable  when  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The 
heartwood  is  light  brown,  with  thin  and  barely  distinguish- 
able sapwood.  Its  medullary  rays  are  as  prominent  and  as 
conspicuous  as  in  White  Oak,  which  makes  it  acceptable 
for  furniture  and  interior  finish.  It  is  used  for  all  the  pur- 


CHESTNUT  OAK  239 

posea  that  White  Oak  is,  —  and  the  tree  may  be  accepted 
as  a  White  Oak  adapted  to  growing  in  wet  ground. 

Its  propagation  should  be  undertaken  along  the  same 
lines  as  White  Oak,  although  it  does  not  develop  a  promi- 
nent tap-root  except  when  growing  on  dry  ground.  It  ma- 
tures its  seed  in  one  year.  Unfortunately  it  does  not  shed 
its  lower  limbs  readily  even  when  crowded,  but  these  are 
seldom  large  enough  to  injure  the  lumber  seriously.  Close 
planting  may  modify  that  characteristic ;  anyway,  close 
planting  would  have  that  tendency.  No  information  can 
be  obtained  that  its  propagation  has  ever  been  attempted. 
There  would  certainly  be  no  reason  to  undertake  its  culti- 
vation where  White  Oak  will  grow,  but  it  may  be  under- 
taken where  White  Oak  will  not  thrive. 

There  is  another  Swamp  White  Oak,  Quercus  lyrata, 
commonly  called  "Overcup  Oak,"  ranging  from  northern 
Maryland  southward  to  northern  Florida  and  westward  to 
northeastern  Missouri.  Its  name,  "  Overcup,"  was  bestowed 
upon  it  because  the  cup  nearly  or  quite  covers  the  acorn. 
Its  general  characteristics  are  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Swamp  White  Oak  just  described,  and  hence  a  de- 
tailed account  of  this  one  would  be  superfluous.  Aside  from 
some  little  difficulty  in  seasoning,  its  wood  is  as  valuable 
as  that  of  the  other. 

Chestnut  Oak  :  Rock  Oak  :   Quercus  prinus 

In  their  general  outline  the  leaves  of  this  Oak  resemble 
those  of  the  well-known  Chestnut  {Castanea  dentata},  and 
hence  the  name  "  Chestnut  Oak."  In  some  sections  it  is 
known  as  "  Tan  Oak,"  because  its  bark  is  rich  in  tannin,  the 
mdstso  of  any  of  the  Oaks;  and,  as  it  frequently  grows  in 
rocky  situations,  it  is  sometimes  called  "  Rock  Oak."  It  is 
very  common  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Its  best  develop- 
ment is  on  the  lower  mountains  of  eastern  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  Carolinas,  where 


240  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

it  is  frequently  the  prevailing  tree.  While  growing  in  the 
New  England  States,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  very  evenly  dis- 
tributed or  very  abundant  there.  It  flourishes  best  in  deep, 
rich  soil,  but  will  grow  on  dry,  sterile,  and  even  rocky 
slopes  and  hillsides.  In  its  best  development  it  has  been 
found  one  hundred  feet  high  and  six  feet  in  diameter,  but 
trees  of  these  dimensions  can  be  seen  only  in  rich  soils, 
and  rarely  there.  In  poor  soils  it  is  much  smaller,  seldom 
over  three  feet  in  diameter  or  more  than  fifty  feet  in  height ; 
while  in  some  localities  it  does  not  exceed  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  height  of  not  over  thirty  or  forty  feet, 
even  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  years. 

It  is  light-demanding,  and  unless  closely  crowded  during 
early  life  it  branches  out  anywhere  from  six  to  fifteen  feet 
above  the  ground  with  somewhat  specialized  limbs.  When 
not  crowded,  it  frequently  grows  crooked.  When  young  its 
bark  is  quite  smooth,  but  as  age  increases,  the  bark  becomes 
deeply  furrowed  vertically,  more  so  than  on  any  other  Oak. 
The  dead  bark  does  not  scale  off,  and  it  will  frequently 
be  found  nearly  if  not  quite  three  inches  thick.  At  best 
the  tree  is  a  rather  slow  grower. 

Its  wood  is  tough,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  durable,  rather 
close-grained,  and  with  conspicuous  medullary  rays.  It  has 
few  open  ducts  and  requires  less  "  filler  "  for  a  good  finish 
than  most  Oaks.  When  finished  without  stain,  its  hard, 
satiny,  and  lustrous  surface  is  deemed  superior  to  White 
Oak.  The  color  of  the  heartwood  is  rather  darker  than  the 
average  of  White  Oak,  with  a  light-colored  sapwood.  One 
serious  drawback  to  its  usefulness  as  a  finishing-wood  is 
its  tendency  to  check  when  seasoning.  This  can  be  largely 
overcome  by  proper  piling.  In  substantially  all  respects  the 
wood  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  White  Oak,  and  for 
fuel  is  superior  to  any  other  Oak. 

It  is  not  a  prolific  seeder,  and  as  the  acorns  are  sought 
by  squirrels  and  mice,  its  natural  reproduction  is  slow.  It 
has  a  tap-root  which  will  prevent  successful  transplanting 
from  the  nursery ;  hence  its  reproduction  can  best  be  brought 


BURR  OAK  241 

about  by  planting,  as  recommended  for  White  Oak.  Be- 
longing to  the  White  Oak  class,  its  acorns  mature  in  one 
year.  The  distance  apart  that  the  seeds  should  be  planted 
in  the  forest  must  be  largely  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  location.  If  in  fertile,  moist  ground  five 
to  six  feet  would  be  advisable,  but  if  on  dry,  rocky,  and 
sterile  ground,  then  four  to  five  feet  would  be  far  enough 
apart. 

Burr  Oak  :   Quercus  macrocarpa 

This  tree  is  most  generally  known  as  Burr  Oak,  although 
in  some  sections  of  the  country  it  is  called  "  Mossycup 
Oak,"  from  the  fact  that  its  acorn  is  largely  covered  by  a 
cup  which  is  clothed  with  pointed  scales,  having  a  loose 
fringed  border  ;  and  this  name  is  not  at  all  inappropriate. 
It  is  an  important  member  of  the  White  Oak  class  and  in 
many  respects  is  a  close  competitor  in  general  usefulness 
with  the  White  Oak.  Its  botanical  range  is  greater,  and 
while  it  prefers  low,  rich  bottom  lands  along  rivers  and 
smaller  streams,  it  will  accept  high  grounds  if  fertile;  but 
it  does  not  grow  on  uplands  as  readily  or  thrive  as  well 
there  as  White  Oak.  Its  range  covers,  intermittently,  the 
entire  country  east  of  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
excepting  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  parts  of  Texas  and  Tennessee.  It  attains  its 
greatest  size  in  Indiana  and  Illinois,  where  it  has  been 
found  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  high  and  six  feet  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  stem  clean  of  limbs  for  a  height  of  seventy- 
five  feet  or  more.  It  has  broad-spreading  branches  and  is 
a  giant  among  its  associates.  It  will  make  up  a  pure  forest 
or  thrive  with  such  companions  as  seek  the  soil  it  prefers. 
It  largely  formed  the  well-known  "  oak  openings  "  in  some 
of  the  Western  States.  Like  nearly  all  other  Oaks,  it  is 
intolerant  of  shade.  It  has  a  thick  deeply  furrowed  bark, 
and  in  this  it  is  equaled  only  by  the  Chestnut  Oak. 

Its  wood  is  strong,  hard,  heavy,  tough,  close-grained. 


242  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

and  durable.  The  heartwood  is  a  rich  yellowish  brown, 
sometimes  quite  dark,  with  a  thin,  light-colored  sapwood. 
Its  annual  rings  are  conspicuous  and  spring  and  summer 
wood  are  quite  distinct.  It  has  broad,  conspicuous  medul- 
lary rays,  which  add  to  its  good  qualities  when  used  for 
furniture  or  interior  finish.  It  is  used  for  substantially  all 
purposes  to  which  White  Oak  is  adapted. 

It  is  a  slow  grower  unless  in  rich  moist  soil,  in  which  case 
it  frequently  outstrips  White  Oak.  There  is  apparently 
nothing  about  it  to  prevent  its  cultivation  in  soil  adapted 
to  it.  It  has  been  planted  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  West, 
and  where  conditions  are  favorable  it  flourishes.  Its  culti- 
vation should  evidently  be  along  the  same  lines  that  must 
be  pursued  for  White  Oak.  Like  that  tree  it  has  a  tap- 
root, but  does  not  appear  to  object  so  seriously  to  inter- 
ference with  it.  Gathering  and  caring  for  its  seed  must  be 
the  same  as  for  other  Oaks.  The  acorns  mature  in  one  year. 
Probably  the  best  distance  apart  to  plant  the  acorns  or 
trees  in  the  forest  would  be  from  five  to  six  feet,  according 
to  fertility  of  soil. 

Cow  Oak  :   Quercus  michauxii 

Like  the  Swamp  White  Oak,  this  tree  grows  along 
streams  and  on  the  borders  of  swamps,  and  can  endure 
standing  in  water  for  some  time  without  apparent  injury. 
Like  that  tree,  also,  its  leaves  resemble  somewhat  those  of 
the  Chestnut  Oak.  Its  bark,  however,  is  more  nearly  like 
that  of  the  White  Oak  than  any  other.  It  is  quite  probably 
a  hybrid.  There  is  some  question  whether  this  and  the 
Swamp  White  Oak  are  not  varieties  of  the  White  Oak 
changed  by  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  or  surroundings. 

Its  natural  range  is  south  of  that  occupied  by  the  Swamp 
White  Oak,  closely  following  the  southern  line  of  that  tree's 
range.  It  reaches  to  northern  Florida  and  the  Gulf.  West- 
ward it  goes  to  eastern  Texas,  Indian  Territory,  and  south- 
ern Missouri.  In  the  forest  it  grows  to  a  height  of  one  hun- 


cow  OAK  243 

dred  feet  with  a  diameter  of  five  or  even  six  feet,  with  a 
clean  stem  for  fifty  or  more  feet.  Like  nearly  all  other 
Oaks,  it  is  intolerant  of  shade. 

The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  tough,  strong,  coarse-grained, 
and  durable.  The  heartwood  is  a  light  brown,  with  a  thin  and 
darker-colored  sapwood.  Its  medullary  rays  are  large  and 
conspicuous,  but  not  numerous,  and  its  annual  rings  are 
clearly  shown.  There  is  a  distinct  difference  between  the 
spring  and  summer  wood,  the  pores  in  the  former  being 
very  prominent.  Its  wood  is  quite  like  that  of  the  White 
Oak,  differing  mainly  in  being  moi'e  easily  split,  especially 
between  the  annual  layers.  This  feature  makes  it  available 
for  basketwork  and  has  given  it  the  name  of  "  Basket  Oak  " 
in  some  localities.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish,  cabinet- 
work, general  construction,  railroad  ties,  and  substantially 
all  purposes  for  which  White  Oak  can  be  used.  The  tree 
could  very  appropriately  be  called  the  White  Oak  of  the 
Southern  States,  and,  excepting  the  Southern  Red  Oak,  it  is, 
no  doubt,  the  most  valuable  broadleaf  tree  growing  there. 

Unfortunately  it  does  not  appear  to  flourish  on  dry 
ground,  and  until  it  is  experimentally  shown  that  it  will 
grow  there,  its  cultivation  should  be  confined  to  its  natural 
soil.  As  it  naturally  grows  where  nearly  all  other  valuable 
timber  trees  refuse  to  grow,  this,  aside  from  its  good  quali- 
ties as  a  timber  tree,  is  an  additional  reason  for  its  cultiva- 
tion. Standing  more  or  less  in  the  water,  it  has  no  need  of  a 
tap-root,  and  hence  that  feature  has  not  been  greatly  devel- 
oped, as  in  most  other  Oaks,  and  there  should  be  little  diffi- 
culty in  transplanting  it  when  young,  and  the  moist  ground  in 
which  it  grows  should  insure  success.  But  this  would  be  ex- 
perimental, for  there  are  no  known  efforts  in  that  line.  Its 
propagation  by  planting  seeds  would  certainly  be  a  safe 
undertaking,  for  that  would  be  but  following  Nature.  Gath- 
ering and  planting  the  acorns  —  they  mature  in  one  year  — 
should  be  the  same  as  for  other  Oaks,  and  the  distance 
apart  for  planting,  the  same.  As  the  ground  should  be  at 
least  moist  where  the  seeds  are  planted,  it  would  naturally 


244  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

follow  that  they  should  not  be  covered  as  deep  as  would  be 
necessary  on  dry  ground. 

Post  Oak  :   Quercus  minor 

This  Oak  is  classed  and  sold  in  the  lumber  market  as 
White  Oak,  and  it  has  some  of  the  good  qualities  of  that 
noted  tree,  but  by  no  means  all.  Its  natural  range  is  a  wide 
one  and  is  included  in  a  boundary  line  running  from  Cape 
Cod  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  northern  Florida,  from 
there  along  the  Gulf  to  Galveston,  thence  northward 
to  Kansas,  and  from  there  in  almost  a  direct  line  across 
Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  to 
Massachusetts.  In  localities  of  its  best  development  trees 
have  been  found  one  hundred  feet  high  and  three  feet  in 
diameter,  but  this  is  far  above  the  average.  It  varies  greatly 
in  character  with  location.  It  is  somewhat  dwarfed  in  some 
sections,  and  in  its  extreme  northern  range  may  frequently 
be  found  small  and  of  little  value,  except  for  fence  posts, 
from  which  fact  its  common  name  no  doubt  arose.  It  pre- 
fers a  dry,  sandy  soil.  Unfortunately  it  does  not  appear  to 
be  willing  to  drop  its  lower  limbs  and  grow  tall  and  smooth 
far  up  from  the  ground,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  be 
crowded  by  neighbors.  What  systematic  forestry  might 
bring  about  is  uncertain.  The  shape  of  the  leaf  of  the  Post 
Oak  is  peculiar.  From  the  stem  to  about  one  half  its  length 
it  closely  resembles  that  of  the  White  Oak.  It  then  broad- 
ens and  from  there  on  to  the  point  its  shape  is  substantially 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Chestnut  Oak. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  and  dur- 
able in  contact  with  the  soil.  Its  annual  rings  are  well 
marked,  and  there  is  a  broad  distinction  between  spring 
and  summer  wood.  Its  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and 
quite  conspicuous,  causing  it,  together  with  the  color  of  the 
wood,  to  resemble  White  Oak  closely.  The  heartwood  varies 
in  color  from  light  to  dark  brown,  with  a  thick  and  lighter- 
colored  sapwood.   It  is  difficult  to  season,  checking  badly 


CHINQUAPIN   OAK  245 

when  drying.  Were  it  not  for  this  feature  it  would  prove 
a  good  substitute  for  White  Oak  for  furniture,  interior 
finish,  and  tight  cooperage.  It  is  mainly  used  for  railroad 
ties,  general  construction,  fencing,  and  fuel — sometimes 
for  heavy  carriage  and  wagon  work. 

It  is  altogether  probable  that  its  artificial  propagation, 
except  by  seed  planting,  will  not  be  successful  if  attempted, 
its  tap-root  making  removal  from  the  nursery  a  very  difii- 
cult  task  at  best.  At  all  events,  it  should  be  undertaken  with 
caution.  Reproduction  can  surely  be  brought  about  by  gath- 
ering and  planting  the  acorns  as  recommended  for  White 
Oak.  However,  as  White  Oak  can  be  grown  in  much  of  the 
territory  where  Post  Oak  flourishes,  the  former  should  be 
planted  there  in  preference.  Still,  as  Post  Oak  will  grow 
in  poorer  soil  than  White  Oak,  care  should  be  taken  to  grow 
it  there,  and  a  proper  selection  of  the  ground  made. 

Chinquapin  Oak  :  Yellow  Oak  :  Quercus  acuminata 

This  is  another  of  the  White  Oak  class  with  leaves 
largely  resembling  those  of  the  Chestnut,  and  varying  but 
little  from  the  leaves  of  the  Chestnut  Oak  ( Q.  prinus). 
They  gradually  taper  to  an  apex,  hence  the  botanical  de- 
signation acuminata.  Its  natural  range  is  substantially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Chestnut  Oak,  except  that  it  extends 
farther  west,  invading  Kansas.  It  is  by  no  means  of  uni- 
form growth,  and  in  some  localities  is  somewhat  dwarfed. 
Its  best  development  appears  to  be  on  limestone  soils  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  where  it  flourishes  on  ridges  and  hills 
as  well  as  on  rich  bottom  lands  and  rocky  banks  of  streams. 
It  is  not  frequently  found  in  the  Atlantic  States,  but  is 
quite  common  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  extending 
from  there  to  Kansas.  When  growing  in  its  favorite  soil 
the  tree  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  with  a  diameter  of  four  feet.  It  is  light-demand- 
ing, and  therefore  will  grow  tall  and  free  from  limbs  to  a 
great  height  if  crowded  when  young. 


246  WHITE  OAK  CLASS 

The  wood  is  very  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  durable,  fairly 
close-grained,  but  not  tough.  There  is  a  distinct  difference 
between  spring  and  summer  wood  and  the  annual  rings  are 
easily  distinguished.  The  medullary  rays  are  thin  and  by  no 
means  prominent.  The  color  of  the  heartwood  is  a  light 
yellow  brown,  with  sapwood  still  lighter  in  color.  It  is  used 
for  substantially  the  same  purposes  as  White  Oak,  although 
not  as  acceptable  for  cabinetwork  and  interior  finish,  nor 
for  tight  cooperage,  as  it  checks  badly  when  drying. 

If  propagation  is  attempted  it  should  be  along  the  lines 
laid  down  for  White  Oak,  as  it  has  a  tap-root.  It  ripens 
its  seed  in  one  year.  It  is  not  a  rapid  grower,  and  in  many 
localities  not  equal  to  the  White  Oak,  and  if  the  latter  will 
flourish  where  this  one  will,  it  would  best  be  planted  in  its 
stead.  The  tree  should  not  be  confounded  with  Black  Oak, 
which  is  sometimes  called  Yellow  Oak.  That  is  of  the  Red 
Oak  class.  Its  name  "  Chinquapin  "  is  a  misnomer,  for  the 
Chinquapiu  belongs  to  the  Chestnut  family. 


RED   OAK   CLASS 

Of  the  Red  Oak  class  there  are  but  few  of  the  twenty- 
four  different  species  in  the  United  States  which  may  be 
considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  undertaking 
their  cultivation.  These  few,  however,  may  well  demand 
attention.  They  are  Red  Oak  (^Qiiercus  riihra)^  Swamp 
Spanish  Oak  {Quercus pagodcefolia),  Black  Oak  {Qiier- 
cus  velutina),  and  Pin  Oak  (^Quercus  palustris).  There 
are  some  others  which  might  be  profitably  propagated  in  re- 
stricted locations  where  better  species  will  not  grow  and 
prove  of  value,  but  their  ranges  are  limited. 

The  Red  Oaks,  with  two  insignificant  exceptions,  re- 
quire two  years  to  perfect  their  fruit.  The  bark  and  leaves 
are  so  unlike  those  of  the  "White  Oak  class  that  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  determining  their  character  or  where  they  be- 
long. It  is  not  always  easy,  however,  to  decide,  by  the 
shape  of  the  leaf,  which  one  of  the  Red  Oak  class  a  tree 
may  be,  for  it  is  not  infrequent  that  two,  and  sometimes 
three,  leaves  quite  differently  formed  may  be  found  on  the 
same  tree.  The  wood  of  the  Red  Oak  very  much  resem- 
bles that  of  the  White  Oak,  but  it  does  not  require  the 
knowledge  of  an  expert  to  determine  to  which  class  it 
belongs. 

Red  Oak  :   Quercus  rubra 

Not  until  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  was  this 
tree  considered  of  much  value,  because  of  the  superiority 
and  cheapness  of  its  more  important  relative  the  White 
Oak.  As  the  supply  of  that  wood  waned  and  the  price  rose, 
attention  was  turned  to  the  large,  vigorous  trees  of  Red 
Oak  from  which  wide  lumber  could  be  cut.  It  was  at  last 
discovered  that  the  tree  has  many  good  qualities.  It  is  a 
rapid  grower  —  the  most  so  of  all  the  Oaks  —  and  it  lives 


248  RED  OAK  CLASS 

long  and  grows  to  a  great  size.  It  is  hardy,  will  grow  tall, 
straight,  and  free  from  limbs  if  crowded  in  early  life.  It 
can  be  transplanted  when  young  with  fair  success,  and,  in 
addition  to  its  value  for  lumber,  there  is  considerable  tan- 
nic acid  in  its  bark.  So  many  good  qualities  does  it  possess 
that  it  is  largely  planted  in  Europe  and  is  deemed  equal  to 
any  of  the  Oaks  there  grown. 

Its  range  is  from  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to 
Kansas,  Alabama,  and  North  Carolina,  and  along  the  At- 
lantic Coast  northward.  In  the  region  of  its  best  develop- 
ment—  which  is  in  the  central  and  southern  portions  of 
the  Northern  States  —  it  has  been  frequently  found  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high,  and  even  more,  with  a 
stem  six  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  the  smallest  in  the  extreme 
northern  limits.  It  thrives  well  in  glacial  drift,  in  the  car- 
boniferous formations,  and  in  alluvial  deposits,  but  prefers 
an  easy  slope  of  hillside  and  a  well-drained  soil.  The 
rapidity  of  its  growth  is  much  affected  by  the  character  of 
its  surroundings  and  soil.  Frequently  lumber  cut  from  it 
will  show  a  slow  growth  and  in  other  cases  a  very  rapid 
one.  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  in  his  report  as  Commissioner  of 
Forestry  of  Pennsylvania,  for  1895,  relates  that  he  counted 
the  annual  rings  in  a  Red  Oak  tree  which  was  just  four 
feet  in  diameter  and  found  only  one  hundred  and  eighty. 
That  averaged  twenty-six  hundredths  of  an  inch  per  an- 
num, or  substantially  one  eighth  of  an  inch  of  annual 
layer.  It  thrives  well  in  practically  pure  stands  or  mixed 
with  other  broadleaf  trees  and  with  Hemlock,  but  it  is 
generally  found  with  other  Oaks  and  Chestnut.  It  is  emin- 
ently a  light-demanding  tree.  When  grown  in  the  open,  it 
will  branch  out  low  down  and  throw  out  limbs  which  grow 
large  and  spread  out  nearly  horizontally  ;  but  if  crowded  in 
early  life  the  tree  will  push  upward  until  it  gets  light  or 
die  in  the  attempt.  In  dense  growth  the  stem  is  slightly 
tapering  and  generally  straight. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong  in  rapidly  growing 
trees,  but  generally  brittle  in  old  or  slow-growing  ones, 


RED  OAK  249 

coarse-grained,  seldom  tough,  and  has  well-marked  annual 
rings,  showing  plain  distinction  between  spring  and  sum- 
mer growth.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown  or  red  with 
rather  thin,  darker-colored  sapwood.  The  medullary  rays 
are  neither  so  broad  nor  so  conspicuous  as  in  White  Oak. 
There  is  considerable  tannic  acid  in  the  wood.  The  wood 
is  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  It  is  easy  to  work,  takes  a  good  finish 
when  the  pores  or  ducts  are  filled,  but  is  quite  given  to 
checking  when  seasoning;  but  this  can  be  largely  obviated 
by  proper  piling.  It  takes  glue  well,  but,  as  with  all  other 
woods,  heartwood  should  be  joined  to  heartwood  and  sap- 
wood  to  sapwood.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish,  furniture, 
some  kinds  of  cheap  cooperage,  general  construction,  and 
even  clapboards  and  shingles.  When  chemically  treated,  it 
makes  a  very  good  railroad  tie,  especially  if  the  tree  from 
which  it  is  cut  is  healthy  and  vigorous.  Several  railroad 
companies  are  planting  it  for  that  purpose  with  a  view 
to  treating  it  chemically.  It  has  its  defects.  One  is  that 
cracks  will  frequently  be  found  in  large  trees  reaching 
from  the  centre  quite  out  to  the  sapwood  and  running  from 
the  ground  twenty  or  thirty  feet  upward.  Unless  properly 
placed  on  the  mill  carriage  the  saw  cuts  across  these  checks 
and  spoils  more  or  less  lumber.  Another  defect  is  that  old 
trees  are  infested  with  worms  the  same  as  old  Chestnut. 

Eed  Oak  sprouts  from  the  stump  quite  freely,  and  if 
properly  cared  for,  natural  reproduction  will  take  place 
after  a  fashion,  but,  as  with  other  trees  that  throw  up 
sprouts,  the  second  generation  will  be  so  weakened  as  to  be 
of  little  value.  Sprouts  of  Red  Oak  rarely  attain  a  size 
suitable  for  the  saw  and  are  almost  invariably  more  or  less 
decayed  at  the  butt.  This  is  the  experience  of  practically 
all  lumbermen  who  have  harvested  such  growth. 

The  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder,  bearing  large  acorns,  which 
are  so  bitter  and  so  highly  charged  with  tannin  that  few 
animals  will  eat  them.  They  require  two  years  to  mature. 
Propagation  by  planting  the  acorns  where  the  trees  are  to 


250  RED  OAK  CLASS 

stand,  or  sowing  them  in  a  nursery  and  transplanting  them 
into  the  forest  when  two  or  three  years  old,  is  entirely  feas- 
ible. While  it  develops  a  rather  conspicuous  tap-root,  it 
will,  like  the  White  Ash  and  several  other  trees,  suffer  its 
removal  in  early  life  without  seriously  checking  its  growth, 
for  it  naturally  takes  on  lateral  roots  as  it  passes  out  of 
babyhood.  If  young  trees  are  grown  in  the  nursery,  —  and 
that  is  what  is  done  to  a  great  extent  in  Europe, — they 
should  be  taken  out  of  the  seed-beds  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year's  growth,  the  tap-root  removed,  and  the  little  trees  set 
in  the  transplant  nursery,  there  to  remain  for  one  or  two 
years,  when  they  can  be  removed  to  the  forest  without 
much  loss  ;  or,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  they  can  be  set 
out  in  the  forest  when  only  one  year  old.  At  that  age  they 
average  eight  inches  in  height. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  tree  can  be  success- 
fully transplanted  when  young,  planting  the  acorns  where 
the  trees  are  to  grow,  as  with  White  Oak,  is  preferable  if 
the  ground  is  not  too  densely  covered  with  bushes,  grass, 
or  weeds.  This  is  less  expensive  and  saves  at  least  two 
years'  time  in  tree-growth.  To  guard  against  failure  to 
germinate,  two  or  more  acorns  should  be  planted  in  each 
place.  If  set  out  or  planted  as  a  pure  stand,  —  no  other  trees 
mixed  with  them,  —  six  by  six  feet  apart  would  be  a  good 
distance,  and  at  the  final  thinning  they  could  be  left  eighteen 
feet  apart,  or  a  few  more  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  to 
the  acre,  which  would  be  a  close  stand  for  mature  Oaks  of 
any  kind. 

All  things  considered,  the  tree  is  eminently  worthy  of 
propagation,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  protect  all  now 
growing  and  efforts  put  forth  largely  to  increase  the  stand. 
If  the  seeds  are  planted  in  the  fall  —  in  that  case  there  is 
little  danger  of  animals  disturbing  them  —  it  should  be 
done  early,  for  the  acorns  frequently  sprout  soon  after  fall- 
ing from  the  tree.  If  stored  until  spring,  they  should  be 
stratified  in  sand  and  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  planted  as 
early  as  possible. 


BLACK  OAK  2B1 


Black  Oak  :   Quercus  velutina 

The  common  names  given  to  most  trees  appear  to  arise 
from  some  peculiarity  of  appearance  either  in  bark,  leaves, 
or  wood,  and  the  Black  Oak  is  no  exception.  It  was  called 
Black  Oak,  no  doubt,  from  the  dark  color  of  its  dead  bark, 
which,  however,  is  not  always  black  but  sometimes  brown, 
and  on  many  trees  only  a  dark  gray.  If  examination  should 
be  made  of  its  live  inner  bark,  another  name  could  be  very 
properly  given  it,  —  and  it  has  been,  —  and  that  would  be 
"Yellow  Oak."  However,  it  is  known  as  Black  Oak  in 
twenty-five  states  of  our  Union,  and  by  that  name  it  should 
be  called,  notwithstanding  that  its  inner  bark  is  yellow  and 
the  lumber  dealer  persists  in  calling  it  Red  Oak  to  his 
customer.  This  tree  should  not  be  confounded  with  another 
Oak  called  "Black  Jack"  (^Quercus  marilandica),  which 
may  be  found  more  or  less  spread  over  much  of  the  terri- 
tory in  which  the  former  grows.  An  inspection  of  the 
inner  bark  will  at  once  determine  whether  the  tree  is  the  true 
Black  Oak  under  consideration.  Many  times  Red  Oak  is 
called  Black  Oak,  simply  because  its  outer  bark  is  dark 
colored,  and  it  is  quite  difficult  to  determine  between  them 
by  general  outward  appearance  or  by  the  character  of  the 
wood. 

A  line  running  along  the  coast  from  southern  Maine  to 
Florida,  thence  along  the  Gulf  to  eastern  Texas,  from  there 
north  to  Wisconsin  and  then  to  Maine,  would  inclose  the 
region  of  its  natural  range.  Its  best  development  may  be 
found  in  southern  New  England  and  the  central  portions 
of  the  Middle  States.  In  some  localities  it  is  much  dwarfed. 
It  is  quite  exacting  as  to  character  of  soil  and  location.  It 
prefers  rich,  well-drained  bottom  lands,  but  will  grow  well 
on  fertile  uplands  and  hillsides.  It  does  not  thrive  on  dry, 
sterile  soil.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  feet,  with  a  stem  four  feet  in  diameter,  but 
such  trees  are  not  common.  It  is  not  a  rapid  grower,  but 


252  RED  OAK  CLASS 

lives  to  a  good  old  age.  Its  branches  are  slender  when 
close-grown  and  even  then  form  a  somewhat  open  crown.  It 
will  grow  tall  and  slender  when  crowded,  as  it  is  a  moder- 
ately light-demanding  tree,  but  when  grown  in  the  open  it 
has  a  stocky,  rapidly  tapering  stem,  with  wide-spreading 
limbs  from  the  ground  up,  and  forms  a  round  crown.  No 
other  Oak  produces  so  many  differently  shaped  leaves  on 
the  same  tree  as  this.  So  far  as  its  leaf  form  is  concerned,  it 
apparently  has  not  decided  what  one  to  adopt  exclusively. 

Its  wood  is  strong,  heavy,  and  hard,  but  not  tough.  It 
is  more  durable  than  Red  Oak,  but  not  equal  to  White 
Oak,  and  it  checks  when  seasoning.  The  heartwood  is  light 
brown,  somewhat  tinged  with  red,  with  lighter-colored  and 
rather  thin  sapwood.  It  is  coarse-grained,  and  its  spring 
and  summer  wood  easily  distinguished.  The  medullary  rays 
are  thin  and  inconspicuous  for  an  Oak.  It  is  used  for  nearly 
all  purposes  for  which  Red  Oak  is  suitable. 

Formerly  its  inner  bark  was  in  considerable  demand,  as 
an  extract  of  it  was  largely  used  as  a  yellow  dye.  It  bore 
the  name  of  "  quercitron  "  and  was  a  distinctive  article  of 
commerce,  and  the  tree  was  consequently  called  Quercus 
tinctorium.  The  inner  bark  is  rich  in  tannin,  astringent, 
and  extremely  bitter. 

It  is  tap-rooted,  and  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  stub- 
bornly so.  While  no  experience  in  propagating  can  be 
pointed  out,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  can  be  accomplished 
far  better  by  planting  the  acorns  where  the  trees  are  to 
grow  than  by  any  other  method ;  and  planting  young 
trees  from  the  nursery  would  not  be  likely  to  succeed.  It 
does  not  sprout  freely.  It  is  a  fairly  good  seeder  with  not 
very  large  acorns,  which  are  intensely  bitter  and  astringent, 
and  they  require  two  years  to  mature.  Should  cultivation 
be  undertaken,  the  acorns  should  be  gathered  and  treated 
the  same  as  recommended  for  other  Oaks.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  aniline  dyes,  the  value  of  the  tree  has  been 
greatly  lessened,  and  attempts  at  its  propagation  would  be 
warranted  only  where  no  better  trees  can  be  grown. 


SPANISH   OAK  253 


Spanish  Oak:  Quercus pagodcefolia 

This  species  of  the  Red  Oak  class  can  be  found  from 
southern  New  Jersey  to  Florida  and  through  the  Gulf 
States  to  eastern  Texas,  Arkansas,  southwestern  Missouri 
to  middle  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  and  northern  Illinois 
and  Indiana.  It  is  very  generally  called  Spanish  Oak,  es- 
caping, as  many  have  not,  a  multitude  of  strange  names. 
Its  best  development  is  along  the  swamps  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  in  the  Yazoo  basin,  and  in  eastern  Arkansas,  where  it 
grows  to  be  one  hundred  feet  high  and  five  feet  in  diameter, 
quite  clean  of  limbs  for  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and  is  one  of  the 
important  timber  trees  of  those  localities.  It  prefers  rich 
bottom  lands  and  alluvial  banks  of  streams,  and  does  not 
seriously  object  to  the  borders  of  swamps  too  wet  for  many 
other  trees.  Like  all  other  Oaks  it  demands  light,  and 
must  be  grown  in  a  crowded  situation  until  it  reaches 
nearly  or  quite  its  natural  height-growth,  when  it  will  form 
a  comparatively  small  crown ;  but  when  grown  in  the  open 
it  will  throw  out  limbs  low  down  and  form  an  open  and 
wide-spreading  crown. 

The  wood  is  largely  used  in  place  of  White  Oak  and  is 
probably  among  the  best  of  the  Red  Oak  class  for  some 
purposes.  The  heartwood  is  light  red  with  a  tinge  of  brown 
and  the  sapwood  is  thin  and  nearly  white.  The  annual 
layers  are  very  distinct,  the  summer  wood  being  much 
more  compact  than  that  of  spring,  with  few  but  conspic- 
uous medullary  rays.  The  greatest  obstacle  to  its  general 
use  lies  in  the  difficulty  in  seasoning  it,  as  it  checks  badly. 
Were  it  not  for  this  defect,  it  could,  no  doubt,  be  made  a 
substitute  for  White  Oak  in  tight  cooperage.  It  is  used  to 
some  extent  for  oil  barrels,  largely  for  general  construc- 
tion work,  and  also  for  furniture  and  interior  finish,  and  in 
each  case  as  a  substitute  for  White  Oak. 

It  cannot  be  ascertained  that  any  effort  has  been  made 
looking  to  its  propagation  ;  but  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  sue- 


254  RED  OAK  CLASS 

cessful  in  its  natural  habitat,  as  it  is  a  moist-ground  tree 
and  may  not  seriously  object  to  the  destruction  of  such 
tap-root  as  it  possesses.  Yet  nothing  but  experiment  can 
determine  that.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  plant- 
ing acorns  would  be  successful.  These  require  two  years 
to  mature.  It  generally  makes  a  fairly  good  growth,  but 
sometimes  a  rapid  one  for  an  Oak. 

There  is  another  species  of  Oak  closely  resembling  Q. 
pagodcefolia,  which  for  a  time  was  considered  only  a  va- 
riety brought  about  by  soil  conditions.  Like  the  other  it 
is  commonly  called  Spanish  Oak,  but  its  botanical  name  is 
Quercus  digitata.  Its  natural  range  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  Q.  pagodcefolia^  but  it  grows  on  higher  ground, 
and  does  not  attain  the  same  dimensions,  nor  is  its  wood 
as  valuable,  although  quite  like  it  in  general  appearance. 
Both  Spanish  Oaks  are  classed  in  the  lumber  market  as 
Ked  Oak  and  the  purchaser  will  not  secure  the  best  one 
by  naming  it,  for  the  dealer  may  not  know  which  he  offers. 
The  tree  under  consideration  —  Q.  digitata  —  seldom  at- 
tains a  height  of  eighty  or  a  diameter  of  three  feet.  The 
wood  is  used  for  coarse  construction,  fuel,  and  fencing,  but 
is  not  as  durable  as  that  of  the  other  species,  nor  is  it  as 
tough.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin.  Undoubtedly  propa- 
gation would  best  be  undertaken  by  planting  acorns. 

Pin  Oak  :  Quercus  palustris 

Pin  Oak  has  several  common  names,  but  the  one  here 
accepted  is  more  frequently  used  than  any  other.  It  does 
not  rank  very  high  as  a  timber  tree,  even  among  the  Red 
Oak  class,  to  which  it  belongs  ;  but  for  all  that,  it  has  some 
redeeming  qualities.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  for  an  Oak,  only 
the  Red  Oak  excelling  it.  Being  light-demanding,  it  will, 
when  crowded,  grow  a  straight,  undivided  stem,  with  com- 
paratively small  limbs,  but  will  persist  in  retaining  many 
of  them,  though  they  may  grow  but  very  little  in  size.  It 
does  not  attain  the  large  dimensions  of  the  Red,  Spanish, 


PIN  OAK  255 

or  Black  Oak,  nor  will  it  drop  its  lower  limbs  so  completely 
when  crowded.  It  is  reported  to  have  been  found  with  a 
stem  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high  and  four  feet  in 
diameter.  It  takes  on  a  pyramidal  form  of  crown  in  the 
open,  with  the  outer  ends  of  its  topmost  branches  elevated, 
the  middle  ones  more  or  less  horizontal,  and  the  lower  ones 
drooping,  and  forms  a  singularly  beautiful  ornamental 
tree,  the  most  so  of  any  of  the  Oaks. 

Its  natural  range  is  from  southern  New  England  to  Wis- 
consin, south  to  Virginia,  central  Kentucky,  and  northern 
Arkansas.  Its  best  development  is  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio.  It  flourishes  in  the  rich,  moist  soil  of  river  bottoms, 
along  streams,  and  in  the  borders  of  swamps,  but  takes  kindly 
to  any  fertile  soil,  and  may  be  found  quite  abundant  even 
on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  hard,  tough  in  young  trees, 
coarse-grained,  and  checks  badly  in  seasoning.  The  heart- 
wood  is  a  light  brown,  frequently  variegated,  with  nearly 
white  sapwood.  Its  annual  rings  are  easily  detected  and  its 
medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  prominent.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  durable  when  exposed  to  the  soil  or 
weather,  but  its  resistance  to  decay  when  used  as  a  railroad 
tie  appears  to  vary  with  the  location  or  section  of  country 
in  which  it  grows,  for  there  are  well-attested  cases  where 
it  serves  a  very  fair  purpose.  Whenever  it  can  be  secured 
without  knots  or  season  checks,  it  serves  well  for  interior 
finish  and  furniture.  Its  general  use  is  for  cheap  construc- 
tion, cheap  cooperage,  even  shingles  and  clapboards,  but 
it  cannot  serve  a  very  satisfactory  purpose  for  either  of 
the  latter. 

It  is  little  given  to  sprouting,  but  is  readily  grown  from 
seed,  and  is  one  of  the  very  few  Oaks  that  will  bear  trans- 
planting without  seriously  affecting  its  subsequent  growth ; 
no  Oak  surpasses  it  in  this  respect.  It  is  tap-rooted,  but 
for  all  that,  it  is  furnished  with  many  fibrous  roots  and 
takes  on  lateral  ones  in  early  life.  Possessing  these  features, 
it  can  endure  having  its  tap-root  removed  without  much 


256  RED  OAK  CLASS 

injury,  and  when  that  is  done  while  young  it  quickly  over- 
comes the  shock.  This  being  the  case,  propagation  in  the 
nursery  is  entirely  feasible,  although  planting  the  acorns 
where  the  trees  are  to  grow  can  be  successfully  carried  out. 
If  planted  in  the  nursery  the  seedlings  should  be  removed 
from  the  seed-bed  when  one  year  old  and  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  transplant  bed  for  one  or  two  years  as  conditions 
may  dictate.  The  acorns  require  two  years  to  mature. 
Gathering  and  caring  for  them  should  be  the  same  as  for 
other  Oaks.  When  planted  in  the  forest  they  should  be 
spaced  about  five  feet  apart  to  kill  off  the  lower  limbs. 

Southern  Red  Oak  :   Quercus  texana 

For  economic  purposes  this  is  doubtless  the  most  im- 
portant Oak  in  the  Southern  States.  In  character  of  wood 
it  ranks  equally  as  high  as  that  of  the  Northern  Red  Oak 
(^Quercus  rubra),  to  which  it  is  closely  allied,  and  it  is 
frequently  found  mingled  with  it  in  the  southern  forests. 
While  no  definite  information  relative  to  the  remaining 
stand  can  be  obtained,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  it  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  Red  Oak  of  the  North. 

Its  natural  range  extends  from  southern  Illinois  and 
Indiana  down  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  River  to  the 
Gulf,  spreading  out  westwardly  to  the  mountains  of  Texas, 
and  eastwardly  to  Florida.  Its  region  of  best  development 
is  along  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi  River,  on  land 
lying  between  the  swamps  and  the  adjacent  higher  ground. 
In  Texas  it  grows  on  the  low  hills  as  well  as  along  streams. 
Its  forest  companions  are  usually  Red  Gum,  Elm,  Cotton- 
wood, Ash,  and  Hickory.  The  tree  is  of  magnificent  pro- 
portions, frequently  reaching  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  over  seven  feet.  Larger 
dimensions  are  reported.  Like  its  Northern  congener  it  is 
light-demanding  and  a  rapid  grower,  and  it  is  otherwise  quite 
like  that  tree  in  general  characteristics.  Its  leaves,  however, 
more  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Scarlet  Oak. 


SOUTHERN   RED   OAK  257 

The  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Northern  Red 
Oak  ;  is  heavy,  strong,  coarse-grained  in  rapidly  growing 
trees,  hard,  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground,  with 
light,  reddish  brown  heartwood,  and  rather  thin,  lighter- 
colored  sapwood.  Its  medullary  rays  are  not  large.  They 
are  short  and  somewhat  conspicuous,  but  are  not  considered 
an  important  feature,  and  much  of  the  lumber  cut  is 
"  plain  "  sawed.  It  is  largely  used  for  furniture,  interior 
finish,  —  its  coarse  grain  showing  distinctly,  —  and  general 
structural  purposes  for  which  such  wood  is  suitable.  It  is 
quite  difficult  to  season  without  checking. 

No  information  can  be  obtained  of  any  attempt  to  cul- 
tivate it.  Even  natural  regeneration  is  not  allowed  to  take 
place.  Like  all  Oaks  it  has  a  tap-root,  but  whether  it  is  so 
prominent  as  seriously  to  interfere  with  transplanting  can- 
not be  ascertained.  It  matures  its  acorns  in  two  years,  and 
no  doubt  planting  these  would  be  successful.  Evidently 
the  same  treatment  as  for  other  Oaks  should  be  given  it. 
As  the  natural  habitat  of  the  tree  is  on  ground  suited  to 
cultivation,  it  is  in  the  line  of  ultimate  extinction  unless 
measures  are  taken  to  plant  it  or  to  allow  natural  reforest- 
ation to  take  place. 


THE  ASHES 

Theee  are  sixteen  species  of  Ashes  in  the  United  States, 
but  barely  six  of  them  produce  merchantable  lumber.  These 
are  White,  Red,  Green,  Blue,  Black,  and  Oregon  Ash.  In 
the  lumber  trade  all  but  the  last  two  are  classed  and  sold 
as  White  Ash.  This  is  not  a  strictly  correct  classification, 
for  two  of  them  —  Red  and  Green  —  produce  lumber  some- 
what inferior  to  White  Ash,  while  Blue  Ash  is  superior  for 
some  purposes.  Still,  for  most  uses  there  is  little  practical 
difference  in  value  and  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  there  is 
much  wrong  done  by  this  classification.  Black  Ash  is  classed 
alone,  for  its  wood  is  widely  different,  although  it  is  used 
for  many  purposes  that  the  others  are. 

White  Ash  :  Fraxinus  americana 

This  species  leads  all  others  in  value  when  quality  of 
wood,  size  of  tree,  length  of  life,  adaptableness  to  varying 
conditions  of  soil,  and  facility  of  propagation  are  considered; 
and  probably  there  has  been  more  White  Ash  lumber  con- 
sumed in  this  country  than  of  all  the  other  species  of  Ashes 
combined.  Its  natural  range  is  from  Maine  to  northern 
Florida,  westward,  intermittently,  to  Minnesota,  and,  in  some 
localities,  across  the  Mississippi  River  into  eastern  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  and  its  botanical  range  is,  no  doubt,  greater. 
Its  best  development  is  claimed  to  be  in  the  Ohio  River 
basin.  Very  fine  specimens  were  found  in  Pennsylvania, 
especially  on  the  gentle  slopes  and  along  the  streams  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  It  was  there  frequently  seen  from 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high  and 
four  feet  in  diameter  with  a  straight  and  slightly  tapering 
stem,  clean  of  limbs  for  fifty  to  sixty  feet  or  more.  It  was 
never  found  in  pure  stands,  but  mixed  with  other  broadleaf 


WHITE   ASH  259 

trees,  and  sometimes  where  even  White  Pine  and  Hemlock 
were  to  be  seen.  It  prefers  a  rich,  moist  soil,  but  not  ex- 
cessively moist,  yet  it  will  grow  in  almost  any  that  is  neither 
very  dry  nor  very  wet. 

It  is  a  light-demanding  tree,  and  when  grown  in  the  open, 
branches  out  low  down  and  forms  a  symmetrical  round 
crown,  with  limbs  largely  destitute  of  leaves  except  at  or 
near  their  extremities ;  but  when  crowded  from  early  life, 
it  shoots  upward,  dropping  all  its  lower  limbs,  and  forms 
a  tall  stem  which,  when  it  reaches  its  vantage-point,  breaks 
out  into  a  round,  open  crown,  with  a  few  specialized 
branches.  The  stem  sometimes  shows  slight  bends  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  but  soon  coming  back  to  the  perpendicu- 
lar, unless  interfered  with  in  some  way.  An  examination 
of  the  terminal  bud  will  show  how  this  may  happen.  There 
are  three  winter  buds  formed  on  the  leader,  and  if  injury 
comes  to  the  central  one,  then  one  or  the  other,  and  some- 
times both,  of  the  side  buds  will  start  forth  to  become  the 
leader.  In  case  both  become  leaders,  then  there  will  be  a 
forked  tree,  but  if  only  one  attains  that  preeminence,  then 
a  bend  will  occur,  and  the  new  leader  will  assume  an  up- 
right direction.  It  is  seldom  that  any  serious  injury  comes 
to  the  lumber  cut  from  such  a  tree  in  consequence  of  this 
peculiarity. 

It  is  a  rapid  grower  for  the  first  fifty  to  seventy-five  or 
even  eighty  years  of  its  life,  varying,  of  course,  from  sup- 
ply or  lack  of  fertility,  moisture,  and  depth  of  soil.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  last  century  several  White  Ash  trees 
were  set  out  on  the  Pennsylvania  State  Capitol  grounds  at 
Harrisburg,  and  when  two  of  them  were  recently  cut  down 
to  make  room  for  the  new  building,  they  disclosed  sixty- 
five  annual  rings  in  the  stumps  two  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  were,  respectively,  twenty-two  and  twenty-two  and  one 
half  inches  in  diameter  inside  the  bark.  The  wood  in  these 
trees  was  remarkably  strong  and  elastic.  When  not  gen- 
erously given  light,  it  grows  less  rapidly  and  the  lumber  is 
inferior  in  strength  and  elasticity. 


260  THE  ASHES 

The  rapidly  grown  wood  is  of  great  value  for  many  pur- 
poses. For  some  uses  it  is  superior  to  White  Oak.  It  has 
long  been  celebrated  for  its  toughness  and  elasticity.  Homer 
armed  his  heroes  of  the  Trojan  "War  with  ashen  javelins 
and  gave  his  sailors  ashen  oars.  The  average  lumber  cut 
from  forest  trees  is  hard,  heavy,  elastic,  tough,  strong, 
fairly  close-grained,  but  showing  distinct  annual  rings, 
with  moderately  plain  distinction  in  density  between  spring 
and  summer  wood.  The  color  of  the  heartwood  varies  in 
different  trees  from  a  light  to  a  reddish  brown,  sometimes 
strangely  marked  with  splashes  of  darker  and  varying  color 
which  run  fantastically  across  the  annual  rings.  The  sap- 
wood  is  thick  and  light-colored.  The  medullary  rays  are 
small  and  inconspicuous.  It  is  highly  prized  for  agricult- 
ural implements,  carriagework,  automobile  bodies,  handles, 
—  the  coal  miner  prefers  an  ash  handle  for  his  pick  to  all 
other  wood,  —  oars,  and  all  purposes  where  strength  and 
elasticity  are  required.  It  ranks  next  after  Beech  and 
Maple  for  fuel.  It  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil, 
and  the  claim  that  it  serves  a  good  purpose  for  fence  posts 
is  not  founded  on  experience.  Lumber  cut  from  it  does 
not  warp  or  check  badly  when  properly  piled,  but  logs  cut 
from  it  should  be  painted  at  the  ends  or  promptly  sawed 
into  lumber  to  avoid  checks.  It  is  quite  long-lived,  some- 
times reaching  an  age  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
years,  but  the  wood  in  very  old  trees  is  liable  to  be  brittle. 

While  it  will  sprout  from  the  stump  when  quite  young, 
that  method  of  propagation  cannot  be  depended  upon.  Old 
trees  never  sprout.  When  grown  in  the  open,  it  has  been 
known  to  produce  seed  sparingly  at  thirty  years  of  age.  It 
cannot  be  relied  on  to  produce  seed  oftener  than  once  in 
three  years,  and  sometimes  will  not  seed  more  than  once  in 
five  or  six  years,  and,  again,  it  has  been  known  to  bear  seed 
annually  for  several  years ;  but  in  such  cases  the  trees 
stood  in  the  open  and  were  old  and  showed  symptoms  of 
decay.  As  the  White  Ash  is  what  botanists  call  dioecious, 
that  is,  the  staminate  flowers  are  borne  on  one  tree  and  the 


WHITE  ASH  261 

pistillate  on  another,  there  may  be  difficulty  in  securing 
fertile  seeds.  Unless  the  male  and  female  trees  stand  close 
enough  for  the  fertilizing  pollen  to  be  borne  from  the 
former  to  the  latter,  by  winds  or  insects,  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  fertile  seeds  being  produced, —  unless  both  kinds 
of  flowers  are  borne  on  the  same  tree,  which  is  a  disputed 
point.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  peculiarity  accounts 
for  so  few  seeds  germinating,  as  nurserymen  well  know 
that  not  more  than  forty  per  cent  can  be  depended  upon 
to  grow. 

The  tree  blossoms  before  the  leaves  are  fully  developed, 
and  the  seeds  are  ripe  by  the  first  of  October.  They  should 
be  promptly  gathered  and  either  sown  at  once,  or  cared 
for  where  they  will  not  get  very  dry  or  become  wet  and 
mouldy.  If  allowed  to  dry,  many  seeds,  though  fertile,  will 
not  germinate  until  the  second  year  after  being  sown.  The 
seeds  should  be  sown  in  the  nursery  in  rows  twelve  inches 
apart,  an  inch  apart  in  the  row,  and  covered  from  three 
eighths  to  one  half  inch  deep,  with  soil  gently  packed  or 
rolled.  The  bed  should  be  kept  as  uniformly  moist  as  pos- 
sible until  the  plants  are  an  inch  or  so  high.  By  that  time 
the  roots  will  have  penetrated  the  soil  more  than  twice 
that  distance  and  they  can  then  endure  dry  weather  fairly 
well.  If  conditions  are  favorable,  the  seedlings  may  be  ex- 
pected to  reach  a  height  of  from  six  to  fifteen  inches  or 
more  the  first  year,  while  the  roots  will  have  gone  down 
two  or  more  feet.  This  fact  makes  it  necessary  to  remove 
the  seedlings  from  the  seed-beds  when  one  year  old,  to  se- 
cure the  best  results.  They  may  be  transplanted  directly  in- 
to the  forest,  but  would  best  be  placed  in  the  transplant  nur- 
sery for  a  year.  As  the  tree  throws  out  lateral  roots  early 
in  life,  no  great  injury  comes  from  cutting  off  the  tap-root 
some  six  inches  below  where  the  surface  of  the  ground  was 
when  it  stood  in  the  seed-bed,  providing  the  fibrous  roots 
are  abundant  on  the  part  to  be  left ;  if  not,  the  root  should 
be  left  somewhat  longer.  Care  should  be  taken  in  removal 
from  the  seed-bed  not  to  destroy  the  fibrous  roots,  which 


262  THE  ASHES 

may,  and  should,  be  left  on,  as  the  roots  are  easily  broken 
at  this  age. 

Close  planting  in  the  forest  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
force  the  tree  to  grow  tall  and  free  from  limbs.  The  United 
States  Forest  Service  ^  recommends  four  feet  each  way  as 
a  suitable  distance.  This  would  necessitate  early  thinning, 
but  if  carefully  looked  after,  that  distance  would,  no  doubt, 
be  about  right.  At  all  events,  it  should  not  be  much  more. 

Much  space  has  been  given  to  this  tree  because  of  its 
intrinsic  value  as  a  timber  tree.  Next  to  the  White  Oak  it 
is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  genuine  hardwoods,  and  its 
propagation  is  not  difficult,  nor  is  there  any  reason  why  it 
should  not  be  undertaken  where  conditions  are  favorable. 

Eed  Ash  :  Fraxinus  pennsylvanica 

In  many  respects  Red  Ash  resembles  the  more  import- 
ant White  Ash.  The  economic  difference  is  that  it  does 
not  grow  as  large,  its  wood  is  not  quite  as  valuable,  and  it 
prefers  a  moister  soil.  The  non-botanist  can  determine 
whether  a  tree  is  a  White  or  a  Red  Ash  by  examining  its 
twigs  and  leaves.  If  there  should  be  found  on  the  twigs,  or 
underside  of  the  leaves,  a  down,  consisting  of  soft,  short 
hairs,  —  called  pubescence,  —  the  tree  may  be  set  down  as 
Red  Ash.  There  is  no  distinction  made  in  the  lumber  trade, 
but  there  should  be,  although  for  many  purposes  one  is 
about  as  good  as  the  other.  It  is  mainly  in  elasticity  that 
the  White  Ash  is  superior. 

The  Red  Ash  grows  in  nearly  all  localities  where  the 
White  Ash  does,  with  its  best  development  in  the  North- 
ern States  and  east  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  West  of 
these  mountains  it  is  not  so  common,  or  so  large,  and  ap- 
pears to  change  in  character.  At  its  best  it  seldom  attains 
a  height  of  over  seventy  feet  or  a  diameter  of  over  twenty- 
two  inches.  It  forms  an  irregularly  shaped  head  when  ap- 
proaching maturity.  It  is  light-demanding  and  must  be 
1  White  Ash,  Circular  No.  84. 


GREEN  ASH  263 

grown  in  close  stands  to  produce  the  best  results,  although 
its  lower  limbs  will  die  as  it  approaches  maturity,  even 
though  the  tree  stands  in  the  open.  Its  growth  is  not  so 
rapid  as  that  of  the  White  Ash  nor  can  it  be  considered 
a  long-lived  tree. 

The  wood  in  thrifty  trees  is  moderately  strong,  heavy, 
hard,  coarse-grained,  and  liable  to  be  brittle.  The  heartwood 
is  a  light  brown,  with  thick  sapwood  slightly  lighter  in 
color  and  frequently  streaked  with  yellow.  It  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  the  wood  from  that  of  the  White  Ash  by  its 
general  appearance,  and  manufacturers  and  dealers  may  be 
deceived  in  it.  He  who  desires  a  piece  of  tough,  elastic 
timber  is  the  one  who  will  most  likely  ascertain  which 
it  is. 

As  with  the  White  Ash,  the  pistillate  and  staminate 
flowers  are  borne  on  separate  trees,  and  the  seeds  are  almost 
identical  in  appearance.  The  same  care  should  be  exercised 
in  securing  fertile  seeds  as  is  necessary  for  the  White  Ash, 
and  propagation  should  be  the  same ;  but  as  that  tree  is 
superior  and  will  grow  in  nearly  all  localities  where  the  Red 
Ash  will,  it  certainly  should  be  chosen  in  preference.  Only 
in  soils  too  wet  for  White  Ash  would  good  judgment  indi- 
cate its  adoption. 

Green  Ash  :  Fraxinus  lanceolata 

Whether  Green  Ash  is  a  distinct  species  is  an  unset- 
tled question.  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  ^  notes  that  on  going 
westward  it  is  "connected  with  Red  Ash  by  intermediate 
forms  equally  referable  to  either  tree,"  and  this  being  so, 
the  natural  inference  would  be  that  it  is  a  modification 
brought  about  by  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  and  the 
probabilities  are  that  such  is  the  case.  The  principal  eco- 
nomic difference  is  that  Green  Ash  can  better  withstand 
the  drier  and  colder  climate  of  the  Northwest.  There  is 
little  difference  in  the  character  of  the  wood  and  both  are 
^  Manual  of  Trees  of  North  America,  page  772. 


264  THE  ASHES 

sold  as  "  white  ash."  In  consequence  of  its  hardiness,  it 
has  a  wider  range  than  any  other  timber  Ash.  It  is  widely 
distributed,  ranging  from  Massachusetts  westward  to  the 
Continental  Divide  and  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
but  it  is  not  very  common  east  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  found  at  all  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
from  Maryland  to  southern  Florida.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
trees  that  will  grow  in  the  moist,  warm  climate  of  the 
Southern  States  and  in  the  cold  and  dry  regions  of  the 
North.  This  adaptableness  to  conditions  makes  it  one  of 
the  most  valuable  trees  for  the  Northwest,  and  it  is  supe- 
rior to  all  other  Ashes  there.  Its  ability  to  withstand  the 
rigors  of  the  climate  far  north  of  our  northern  boundary 
has  led  to  its  propagation  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  hun- 
dreds of  miles  north  of  Montana.  Its  cultivation  should 
be  along  the  line  laid  down  for  White  Ash,  and  the  same 
care  should  be  exercised  in  securing  seed.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  it  should  not  be  planted  where  it  is  too  cold  or  too 
dry  for  White  Ash.  While  the  wood  is  not  quite  equal  to 
that  of  White  Ash,  it  is  a  very  good  substitute. 

Blue  Ash  :  Fraxinus  quadrangulata 

There  is  still  another  Ash  that  produces  good  timber, 
in  fact  vies  with  all  others  of  that  family  for  quality,  but 
it  is  by  no  means  as  widely  distributed.  It  is  known  as 
Blue  Ash,  Fraxinus  quadrangulata,  botanically  so  called 
because  of  the  four-angled  arrangement  of  twigs  and  limbs. 
It  is  known  in  the  lumber  trade  as  White  Ash,  and  in  this 
case  the  purchaser  is  m  no  sense  wronged,  for  the  quality 
of  the  wood  is  equal  to  the  best  White  Ash,  and  probably 
the  average  is  better. 

Its  natural  range  is  not  fully  determined.  It  may  be 
found  from  Michigan  and  Iowa  southward  to  northern  Ala- 
bama and  northern  Arkansas.  Its  best  development  is  on 
the  hills  bordering  the  Wabash  River,  and  on  the  western 
slopes  of  some  of  the  Tennessee  mountains.   It  thrives  best 


BLUE  ASH  265 

on  fertile  limestone  hills,  but  can  be  found  on  lower  but 
rich  ground.    It  is  nowhere  abundant. 

Sometimes  the  tree  grows  to  a  height  of  one  hundred 
and  fifteen  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  but  such  di- 
mensions are  unusual.  A  height  of  seventy-five  feet  and 
diameter  of  two  feet  are  more  commonly  found.  The  thick- 
ness of  its  annual  rings  shows  it  to  be  a  fairly  rapid  grower, 
especially  during  the  first  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  years 
of  its  life.  It  is  light-demanding,  and  when  crowded  throws 
up  a  smooth  stem,  slightly  tapering,  and  free  from  limbs 
for  more  than  half  its  height.  In  general  appearance  it 
closely  resembles  the  White  Ash,  mainly  differing  from 
that  tree  in  the  character  of  its  bark  and  flowers.  Its  bark 
is  thinner  and  separates  in  large  plate-like  scales,  and  its 
flowers  are  perfect. 

The  heartwood  is  strong,  elastic,  hard,  and  heavy.  In 
color  it  is  light  yellow,  mottled  or  streaked  with  brown, 
quite  like  the  White  Ash,  and  with  very  thick  but  lighter- 
colored  sapwood.  The  tree  frequently  reaches  the  age  of 
seventy-five  or  eighty  years  before  any  heartwood  is  devel- 
oped. It  is  this  sapwood  that  is  deemed  of  superior  quality 
for  carriagework,  for  fork,  hoe,  rake,  and  shovel  handles, 
and  for  agricultural  implements  generally.  It  is  moderately 
close-grained,  and  does  not  show  a  very  marked  distinction 
between  spring  and  summer  wood,  and  its  medullary  rays 
are  inconspicuous.  It  is  used  for  substantially  all  purposes 
to  which  White  Ash  can  be  put,  while  its  hardness  makes 
it  good  flooring.  It  is  considered  superior  to  all  other  Ashes 
in  resisting  decay  when  exposed. 

Commercial  nurserymen  have  grown  it  for  ornamental 
purposes  and  report  no  difficulty  in  doing  so.  It  cannot  be 
learned  that  any  effort  has  been  made  to  plant  it  in  the 
forest.  No  doubt  it  should  receive  the  same  treatment  in 
propagating  it  in  the  forest  nursery  and  in  removing  it  into 
the  forest  that  White  Ash  demands.  There  need  not  be  as 
great  care  exercised  in  gathering  seed  as  for  other  Ashes,  for, 
as  stated,  the  flowers  are  perfect,  and  hence  the  two  sexes 


266  THE  ASHES 

are  not  borne  on  separate  trees  or  even  on  separate  limbs. 
Its  good  qualities  will  certainly  justify  earnest  efforts  to 
grow  it  on  soils  suited  to  it,  and  even  to  experiment  with 
it  on  other  than  in  limestone  regions,  for  it  may  thrive  on 
others  if  fertile. 

Black  Ash  :  Fraxinus  nigra 

This  tree  stands  alone  in  its  class.  It  is  essentially  a 
swamp  tree  and  flourishes  best  in  the  cooler  sections  of  the 
country.  Its  range  is  from  Maine  to  Virginia  and  westward 
to  Minnesota.  It  will  not  thrive  well  on  dry  ground,  and  its 
successful  cultivation  can  be  carried  on  only  in  its  chosen 
home,  and  as  the  location  in  which  it  will  grow  can  seldom 
produce  anything  better  it  might  be  well  to  plant  it  there, 
as  its  wood  is  useful  for  many  purposes.  Its  tendency  is 
to  grow  tall,  frequently  reaching  eighty  or  ninety  feet  in 
height,  with  a  diameter  rarely  exceeding  thirty  inches,  but 
sometimes  reaching  three  feet.  When  grown  in  a  fairly 
close  stand  it  has  but  few  limbs  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  with  slender  upright  ones  at  the  top.  "  Burls,"  which 
may  be  cut  into  veneers  and  used  for  inlay  work,  frequently 
form  on  the  otherwise  clean  portion  of  the  stem. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  tough,  coarse-grained,  rather  softer 
than  that  of  the  other  Ashes,  heartwood  dark  brown,  with 
nearly  white  sapwood,  and  not  durable  when  exposed  to 
the  ground.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
spring  and  summer  wood.  There  are  numerous  and  coarse 
ducts  in  the  former  which  permit  the  annual  layers  to  be 
easily  separated.  This  allows  it  to  be  split  tangentially  for 
hoops,  baskets,  and  chair  bottoms.  Sometimes  the  annual 
layers  are  darkly  veined.  They  are  always  prominent.  The 
medullary  rays  are  small,  numerous,  but  not  at  all  conspic- 
uous. Its  general  use  is  for  cheap  furniture  and  interior 
finish. 

The  flowers  and  fruit  are  similar  to  those  of  the  White 
Ash,  except  that  the  seed  and  wing  of  the  White  Ash  are 


BLACK  ASH  267 

larger.  There  is  no  information  to  be  obtained  of  any  effort 
to  grow  it  for  any  purpose.  Natural  reproduction  will  pro- 
bably produce  all  that  is  required  if  allowed  to  take  place. 
It  sprouts  quite  freely  from  the  stump,  and  reproduction 
could  be  brought  about  in  this  way,  aided  by  sowing  seed 
in  moist  places. 


THE  HICKORIES 

There  are  twelve  species  of  Hickories  known  to  botan- 
ists and  they  are  all  indigenous  to  North  America.  None  can 
be  found  growing  naturally  elsewhere.  Eleven  of  them  be- 
long to  the  United  States,  but  only  four  of  these  are  deemed 
of  sufficient  value  as  timber  trees  to  be  considered  here. 
Large  consumers  place  them  in  two  classes  and  speak  of 
them  as  Shellbark  Hickory  and  Black  Hickory,  while  the 
lumber  trade  calls  the  lumber  cut  from  all  of  the  valuable 
species  "  hickory,"  and  by  this  general  designation  the 
consumer  will  not  be  wronged  if  lumber  cut  from  no  other 
species  than  the  four  hereafter  considered  is  given  him, 
although  the  class  called  Black  Hickory  is  preferred  by 
some  carriage  manufacturers.  Only  an  expert  is  capable  of 
distinguishing  between  the  woods.  For  most  purposes  all 
four  species  are  alike  very  valuable  and  have  no  competi- 
tors. For  light  carriage  work  there  is  no  rival  of  Hickory. 
The  beauty,  lightness,  strength,  and  superiority  of  carriages 
constructed  of  our  best  Hickories  have  never  been  attained 
by  the  use  of  any  other  wood,  while  for  handles  and  all 
purposes  where  strength,  combined  with  lightness,  is  desired, 
it  is  unsurpassed.  All  species  rank  first-class  for  fuel.  Hick- 
ory is  also  largely  used  for  smoking  meat,  the  United  States 
Forestry  Bureau  reporting  that  thirty-one  thousand  cords, 
or  approximately  twenty-two  million  feet,  are  annually  de- 
manded by  the  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  packing 
establishments  in  the  United  States  for  smoking  meat. 
This  does  not  include  what  farmers  use  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, which  is  quite  likely  as  much  more.  Unfortunately 
there  has  been  little  or  no  attempt  made  to  perpetuate  the 
supply  of  this  extremely  valuable  wood,  and  carriage-makers 
are  facing  a  famine  in  it  which  will  become  acute  within 
fifteen  years,  if  not  before. 


THE  HICKORIES  269 

All  the  Hickories  have  pronounced  tap-roots.  This  fea- 
ture seems  to  be  essential,  as  none  are  able  to  overcome 
its  destruction  or  serious  injury.  All  attempts  to  transplant 
the  valuable  species  of  Hickory  result  in  practical  failures. 
They  may  grow  in  a  feeble  way  for  a  time,  but  generally 
die  in  a  few  years,  or,  if  not,  never  grow  vigorously.  Of  all 
the  Hickories  only  the  Bitternut  (^Hicoria  minima)  —  a 
tree  of  little  value  for  lumber  and  none  for  fruit — can 
be  successfully  transplanted.  In  consequence  of  this  feature 
no  attempt  to  grow  Hickories  in  a  nursery  and  then  trans- 
plant them  into  the  forest  should  be  expected  to  be  success- 
ful. The  nuts  should  be  planted  where  the  trees  are  to 
stand.  They  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  at  once 
planted ;  or,  if  not  convenient  to  do  that  at  once,  they 
should  be  stratified  in  a  box  with  moist  sand  and  placed  in 
the  ground  with  so  slight  a  covering  that  freezing  may  occur, 
if  possible.  If  thus  kept,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  planting 
in  early  spring.  In  no  case  should  the  nuts  be  allowed  to 
become  at  all  dry.  If  that  occurs,  even  slightly,  vitality  will 
be  impaired  if  not  wholly  destroyed. 

There  are  two  species  in  the  Shellbark  class,  Shellbark 
QHicoria  laciniosa)  and  Shagbark  {Hicoria  ovata).  Each 
of  these  is  indiscriminately  called  "  Shagbark  "  and  "  Shell- 
bark "  throughout  nearly  the  entire  range  of  their  natural 
habitat,  while  the  former  (ZT,  laciniosa)  should  be  called 
"Shellbark  "  and  the  latter  {H.  ovata}  "  Shagbark."  There 
is  a  botanical  difference,  but  so  far  as  economic  features 
maybe  considered  there  is  very  little  if  any.  The  Shagbark 
has  the  rougher  bark  and  produces  the  common  hickory 
nut  of  commerce.  The  Shellbark  has  also  a  rough  bark, 
but  it  is  less  so  than  the  other,  and  the  nut  is  smaller. 

The  Black  Hickory  class  is  composed  of  the  Mockernut 
{Hicoria  alha)  and  the  Pignut  (jHicoria  glabra).  There  is 
little  difference  in  the  wood  of  these  two  trees.  Only  the 
former  bears  edible  fruit. 

One  species  of  Hickory,  Hicoria  pecan.,  bears  the  well- 
known  pecan  nut.  While  practically  worthless  for  timber, 


270  THE  HICKORIES 

it  is  largely  planted  for  its  fruit  in  states  south  of  southern 
Illinois,  where  the  trees  are  grown  from  nuts  from  selected 
trees  or  from  grafts  cut  from  such  trees. 

Shagbark  Hickory  :  Hicoria  ovata 

Like  many  another  valuable  timber  tree  this  one  is 
loaded  down  with  a  large  number  of  strange  and  absurd 
names,  several  of  which  may  be  heard  in  localities  not 
widely  separated.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  it  called 
Shellbark  and  Shagbark  in  the  same  vicinity.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  valuable  Hickories,  only  the  Pecan  exceeding 
it  in  size.  It  is  ordinarily  found  from  eighty  to  ninety  feet 
in  height  and  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  in 
diameter,  while  specimens  showing  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of  three  or  even  four  feet, 
are  not  very  rare. 

Its  natural  range  includes  an  area  bounded  by  a  line 
drawn  from  Maine  to  eastern  Nebraska,  and  south  to  Texas, 
thence  through  northern  Mississippi  and  thence  northward 
to  Maine,  but  not  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  Florida  to 
New  Jersey.  Its  best  development  is  along  the  western 
slope  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  in  southern  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  West  Vir- 
ginia, but  it  is  a  vigorous  grower  from  southern  New  Eng- 
land to  Alabama.  It  grows  best  in  a  rich,  moist  soil,  along 
streams  and  around  the  borders  of  swamps,  but  does  not 
show  much  lack  of  vigor  on  low,  fertile  hills  or  in  moist  in- 
tervales. The  character  of  the  soil  seems  somehow  to  affect 
the  quality  of  the  timber  in  all  the  Hickories.  Studebaker 
Brothers,  manufacturers  of  carriages,  of  South  Bend,  Indi- 
ana, write  the  author  that  "  the  best  stock  is  grown  only 
on  clay  lands  with  heavy  limestone  subsoil.  Good  Oak  and 
Hickory  are  associated  and  usually  grow  of  the  same  qual- 
ity in  the  same  class  of  soil,  and  where  Oak  is  inclined  to 
be  brashy  and  pithy,  the  Hickory  is  likewise." 

The  tree  is  light-demanding,  and  when  grown  in  close 


GROUP  OF  HICKORIES -HICORIA  GLABRA  IN  CENTRE,  SHAGBARK  ON 

SIDES.    iMONTEREY,  PUTNAM  COUNTY,  TENNESSEE 

Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


SHAGBARK  HICKORY  271 

proximity  to  other  trees  will  show  a  straight,  slightly 
tapering  stem,  clean  of  limbs,  for  fifty,  sixty-five,  or  even 
seventy  feet.  In  such  situations  it  forms  a  narrow  crown 
of  rather  small  limbs.  Occasionally  a  few  specialized  limbs 
will  appear,  but  they  seldom  reach  large  dimensions. 
When  grown  in  the  open,  its  tendency  is  to  maintain  a 
straight,  tapering  stem,  with  many  small  limbs,  f  requentl}'- 
pendulous,  forming  a  conical  crown.  As  age  creeps  on,  the 
lower  limbs  die  and  drop  off. 

The  wood  is  very  hard  and  strong,  heavy,  close-grained, 
elastic,  and  tough.  It  is  generally  straight-grained,  and 
can  be  easily  bent  for  carriage  work  and  like  uses.  The 
heartwood  is  light  brown,  with  thin  and  nearly  white  sap- 
wood.  The  medullary  rays  are  small  and  inconspicuous, 
and  there  is  slight  difference  between  spring  and  summer 
growth.  The  wood  is  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the 
weather  or  soil.  It  has  generally  been  thought  that  the 
heartwood  is  not  as  strong  as  the  sapwood.  Recent  experi- 
ments by  the  United  States  Forest  Service  demonstrate 
that  such  belief  is  an  error :  it  has  been  determined 
that  there  is  no  perceptible  difference.  The  wood  is  used 
for  agricultural  implements,  handles,  all  purposes  where 
strength  and  toughness  are  required,  hoop  poles,  baskets, 
fuel,  —  for  which  there  is  nothing  like  it, —  but  most  of  all 
for  carriage  and  wagon  work,  for  which  it  has  no  equal  nor 
is  there  any  known  substitute. 

Aboveground  the  tree  grows  rather  slowly  for  the  first 
four  or  five  years  of  its  life,  but  like  all  tap-rooted  trees 
its  roots  go  deep  into  the  ground  for  food  and  moisture,  and 
when  these  are  secured  it  begins  a  vigorous  stem  growth, 
which  it  maintains  well  on  towards  old  age,  unless  sup- 
pressed by  other  trees,  or  injured  in  some  way.  It  sprouts 
quite  freely  from  the  cut  stump  when  young,  but  seldom 
throws  up  any  sprouts  after  reaching  six  or  seven  inches 
in  diameter.  This  feature  of  sprouting  when  young  makes 
cutting  hoop  poles  profitable  in  some  localities.  Frequent 
cutting,  however,  enfeebles  the  root  system,  and  it  ceases 


272  THE  HICKORIES 

to  produce  a  good  growth  after  two  or  three  cuttings  have 
been  made.  If  allowed  to  grow  it  is  seldom  that  a  sprout 
reaches  a  size  large  enough  for  a  sawlog  before  decay  sets 
in.  It  is  a  fairly  good  seeder,  and  its  fruit  is  promptly 
seized  by  squirrels,  mice,  and  mankind;  and  when  these 
consumers  are  at  all  numerous,  there  is  little  chance  for 
natural  reproduction.  As  the  tree  bears  fruit  quite  early, 
—  sometimes  when  only  thirty  years  old,  when  growing  in 
the  open,  — r-  obtaining  seed  need  not  be  a  difficult  task,  if 
existing  trees  are  cared  for.  The  nuts  should  be  planted 
six  feet  apart  and  the  trees  thinned  as  conditions  indicate. 
The  young  growth  being  superior  for  handles,  there  will 
soon  come  a  return  for  the  money  invested.  Like  the 
Black  Walnut,  the  tree  is  profitable  for  both  wood  and 
fruit. 

Shellbark  Hickory  :  Hicoria  laciniosa 

This  tree  closely  resembles  the  Shagbark.  In  some  local- 
ities it  is  known  as  the  King-nut.  Its  form  and  habit  of 
growth  are  quite  similar  and  the  quality  of  its  wood  is  prac- 
tically the  same.  Its  range,  however,  is  less  in  extent,  it  being 
seldom  found  north  of  central  New  York  or  east  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies.  Neither  does  it  extend  as  far  south  as  the  Shagbark. 
Its  western  limit  is  about  the  same.  It  also  prefers  a  moist 
soil,  being  partial  to  rich  bottom  lands  which  are  some- 
times flooded  in  spring.  Probably  its  best  development  is 
near  the  large  swamps  and  lowlands  of  the  lower  Ohio 
River  basin  and  in  central  Missouri.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
common  trees  to  be  found  there. 

The  tree  does  not  attain  as  great  a  diameter  as  the 
Shagbark,  seldom  exceeding  three  feet,  but  in  height  and 
general  characteristics  of  stem  and  crown,  it  is  substan- 
tially the  same.  The  heartwood  is  somewhat  darker  than 
the  Shagbark,  but  the  sapwood  is  thin  and  nearly  white. 
The  wood  is  used  for  the  same  purposes.  The  casual  ob- 
server can  distinguish  between  the  trees  mainly  from  the 


MOCKERNUT  HICKORY  273 

larger  scales  of  the  bark  of  the  Shagbark,  these  frequently 
being  three  or  four  feet  long,  quite  broad  and  thick,  and 
more  or  less  seamed  vertically. 

The  nuts  are  larger  than  those  of  the  Shagbark,  and  the 
shell  is  thick  and  hard.  They  are  edible.  Caring  for  seeds 
and  propagating  should  be  the  same  in  all  respects  as  for 
other  Hickories.  As  it  naturally  thrives  in  ground  fre- 
quently inundated  for  several  weeks  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  such  locations  should  be  chosen  in  which  to  grow  it, 
especially  as  no  other  Hickory  will  thrive  as  well  there  ;  but 
it  will  grow  fairly  well  elsewhere  if  the  ground  is  fertile. 

MocKERNUT  Hickory  :  Hicoria  alba 

Surely  this  tree  has  more  than  its  share  of  names. 
There  are  fifteen  in  all,  some  of  which  are  absurd  and  un- 
couth. Mockernut  is  the  one  most  generally  chosen  and  it 
is  quite  appropriate,  intended,  no  doubt,  to  express  the 
disappointment  and  disgust  in  the  mind  of  any  one  who 
may  think  he  has  a  large  edible  nut,  but  finds  the  seed  very 
small.  It  is  sometimes  called  "  Big-bud  Hickory,"  a  name 
entirely  in  keeping  with  its  peculiar  winter  buds. 

Its  range  extends  farther  south  than  any  other  Hickory 
that  is  valued  for  its  wood,  even  reaching  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  may  also  be  found  as  far  north  as  Lake  Ontario, 
but  it  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  Northern  States.  Its 
best  development  is  in  the  Ohio  Eiver  Basin  and  in  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas.  In  the  South  it  is  most  common  on 
sandy  hummocks,  but  along  the  Gulf  and  in  the  South  At- 
lantic States  it  is  abundant  on  low  ground  next  to  the 
shores  of  bays  and  inlets.  In  the  North  it  is  mainly  con- 
fined to  low  ridges.  It  appears  to  prefer  soil  that  never  be- 
comes very  dry,  although  it  may  not  be  very  fertile.  Still, 
fertility  is  essential  to  a  vigorous  growth,  and  this  is  true 
of  all  the  Hickories. 

Little  need  be  said  concerning  the  general  characteris- 
tics of  the  tree,  for  they  do  not  essentially  differ  from  those 


274  THE  HICKORIES 

of  tlie  other  Hickories.  It  does  not  grow  very  tall,  seldom 
reaching  one  hundred  feet,  —  generally  not  over  eighty- 
five,  — and  rarely  attaining  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  usually 
not  over  two  feet.  Like  the  other  Hickories  it  is  light- 
demanding,  and  when  crowded  will  send  up  a  straight  stem, 
clean,  tapering,  and  free  from  limbs  for  one  half  its  height. 

The  wood  is  much  like  that  of  the  Shagbark  class,  except 
that  the  heartwood  is  dark  brown,  and  there  is  a  thick  and 
nearly  white  sapwood.  This  latter  feature  is  responsible  for 
its  botanical  designation,  —  alha^  or  white.  In  every  respect 
the  wood  is  equal  in  quality  to  that  of  the  other  Hickories, 
and  the  large  percentage  of  white  sapwood  has,  no  doubt, 
caused  consumers  to  prefer  it  to  any  other,  although  there 
is  doubt  if  that  feature  adds  anything  to  its  value. 

As  indicated,  its  fruit  is  practically  valueless,  owing  to 
its  thick  shell  and  small  size  of  kernel,  —  although  it  finds 
a  ready  sale  with  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  its  charac- 
ter, —  hence  it  must  be  grown  for  its  wood  alone.  The  nuts 
should  be  gathered  and  treated  the  same  as  noted  for  other 
Hickories  and  propagation  be  carried  on  along  the  same 
lines. 

Pignut  Hickory  :  Hicoria  glabra 

An  absurd  name  seems  to  have  been  reached  in  the  first 
attempt  in  the  case  of  the  Pignut  Hickory,  although  it 
is  called  by  several  other  names,  frequently  "  Bitternut," 
which  is  both  incorrect  and  confusing.  It  is  not  even  a 
variety  of  H.  minima,  although,  like  that  tree,  it  bears  bitter 
fruit.  Its  range  is  from  Maine  southward  to  the  Gulf  States, 
and  westward  to  eastern  Kansas.  It  is  most  abundant  in 
Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  its  best  development  is  in  the 
lower  Ohio  River  basin.  It  prefers  dry  ridges  and  hillsides. 

The  tree  seldom  reaches  ninety  feet  in  height,  more  gen- 
erally not  over  seventy -five.  It  is  occasionally  found  three 
to  three  and  one  half  feet  in  diameter,  although  it  does 
not  often  exceed  two  feet.  Demanding  light,  it  sends  up  a 
slender  stem,  clean  of  large  limbs,  and  forms  a  crown  with 


PIGNUT  HICKORY  275 

quite  frequently  crooked  branches,  but  none  of  them  greatly 
specialized.  Accident  or  the  formation  of  two  terminal  buds 
causes  the  tree  occasionally  to  fork  and  form  a  double  top. 
This  happens  more  frequently  with  this  than  with  any  other 
Hickory. 

There  is  practically  no  difference  between  the  wood  of 
this  tree  and  that  of  the  other  Hickories  described.  It  has 
a  thick  and  nearly  white  sapwood,  while  the  heartwood  is  a 
light  brown.  It  is  a  good  seed-bearer,  and  the  same  treatment 
should  be  given  for  its  propagation  as  for  that  of  the  other 
Hickories.  The  nuts  are  variable  in  form,  with  small,  bitter 
kernels,  although  in  some  localities  not  greatly  so.  As  with 
the  Mockernut,  the  tree  must  be  cultivated  for  its  wood 
alone.  Its  great  value  as  a  timber  tree  will  justify  that.  All 
the  Hickories  should  be  planted  six  by  six  feet  apart. 

No  doubt  there  are  some  Hickories  not  here  mentioned 
that  may  serve  fairly  well  for  many  purposes,  especially  for 
fuel,  but  the  important  ones  have  been  considered. 


THE  MAPLES 

The  family  of  Maples  is  a  large  one.  There  are  between 
sixty  and  seventy  species  in  the  world  —  all  but  one  of  them 
belonging  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere  —  and  thirteen  of 
them  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  of  which  less  than 
one  half  have  any  commercial  value  as  timber  trees.  They 
are  naturally  separated  into  two  classes :  Hard  Maple  and 
Soft  Maple.  This  division  is  based  upon  the  physical  char- 
acteristics of  the  wood  of  each,  and  it  has  been  very  pro- 
perly adopted  by  the  lumber  trade. 

While  there  are  several  species  belonging  to  the  Hard 
Maple  class,  there  are  but  three  that  may  be  considered  as 
rightfully  belonging  to  the  list  of  important  timber  trees  of 
our  country.  These  are  Sugar  Maple  {Acer  saccharum,  some- 
times called  "  Sugar  Tree,"  "  Rock  Maple,"  and  "  Hard 
Maple ")  ;  Black  Maple  (^Acer  nigrum,  generally  called 
"  Rock  Maple  ")  ;  and  Broadleaf  Maple  {Acer  macrophyl- 
lum,  frequently  called  "  Oregon  Maple  ").  The  last-named 
one  is  elsewhere  described  (page  354)  when  considering 
the  broadleaf  trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope. 

Of  the  Soft  Maple  class  there  may  be  named  Silver  Maple 
{Acer  saccharinum,  generally  called  "  Soft  Maple  "),  and 
Red  Maple  {Acer  ruhrurn). 

Sugar  Maple  :  Acer  saccharum  and  nigrum 

Because  of  its  widespread  natural  range,  the  well-known 
Sugar  Maple  is  the  dominant  one  of  the  Hard  Maple  class ; 
but  the  economic  difference  between  this  and  the  Black 
Maple  is  not  great.  What  there  is  lies  in  the  smaller  size 
of  the  Black  Maple  and  the  slightly  greater  hardness  of  its 
wood.  Both  species  may  be  accurately  called  Sugar  Maple, 
but  if  either  deserves  the  name  of  Hard  Maple,  it  more 


SUGAR  MAPLE  277 

consistently  belongs  to  the  Black  species.  As  the  habits  of 
growth  are  almost  identical  and  the  methods  of  propagation 
entirely  so,  a  consideration  of  the  Sugar  Maple  will  serve 
equally  as  well  for  the  other  and  hence  that  plan  is  adopted. 

There  is  probably  more  diversity  of  form  and  habit  with 
the  Sugar  Maples  than  there  is  with  any  other  species  of 
timber  trees.  In  a  plantation  of  fifty-one  trees,  about  twenty- 
five  years  old,  on  the  author's  grounds,  growing  mainly  in 
the  open,  there  can  be  seen  nine  different  forms  of  crowns, 
leaves,  or  bark.  Still,  they  are  all  Sugar  Maples,  with  not 
enough  difference  even  to  justify  classing  them  as  distinct 
varieties.  There  will  be  no  difference  in  value  of  wood 
when  cut. 

The  natural  range  is  along  our  northern  border  from 
Maine  to  Minnesota,  south,  through  the  Northern  States 
and  on  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  to  northern  Georgia  and 
western  Florida,  and  west  to  eastern  Kansas  and  eastern 
Nebraska.  There  is  a  somewhat  modified  species  in  the 
Carolinas,  northern  Georgia,  northern  Mississippi,  and 
some  of  the  other  Southern  States,  the  wood  of  which  is 
softer  than  that  of  the  northern  tree,  and  for  hardness  lies 
between  that  and  the  Soft  Maple.  The  region  of  the  best 
development  of  the  Sugar  Maple  is  central  New  England, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Great  Lake  states. 
Trees  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundi'ed  and  twenty  feet 
high  and  four  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  showing  a  stem 
fifty  or  more  feet  without  a  limb,  are  not  at  all  uncommon. 
It  flourishes  best  on  well-drained  soils,  but  thrives  fairly 
well  where  the  soil  is  not  rich,  if  it  is  not  too  wet.  It  is 
most  frequently  found  on  low  ridges,  along  the  slopes  and 
base  of  mountains  and  hills,  and  also  on  moderately  dry 
intervales.  It  can  endure  some  shade,  but  if  grown  in  the 
open,  it  assumes  a  somewhat  low,  spreading,  round,  and 
quite  dense  crown.  If  grown  in  a  close  stand,  it  will  send 
up  its  stem  until  sufficient  light  is  obtained  and  then  branch 
into  a  round  crown  with  large  limbs. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  generally 


278  THE  MAPLES 

straight-grained,  and  quite  tough.  The  heart  wood  is  usually 
a  grayish  brown,  tinged  with  red.  The  sapwood  is  white 
and  may  have  from  twenty-five  to  even  fifty  or  sixty  an- 
nual rings.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a  thrifty  tree  to  reach  the 
age  of  fifty  years  before  any  sapwood  is  formed.  There  is 
little  distinction  between  spring  and  summer  wood;  the 
medullary  rays  are  numerous,  but  small  and  inconspicuous. 
For  some  unknown  cause  the  grain  is  sometimes  contorted 
and  mottled  with  little  spots  or  knots,  possibly  undeveloped 
or  adventitious  buds.  Such  wood  is  known  as  "Bird's-Eye 
Maple."  When  the  grain  is  contorted  into  waves  it  consti- 
tutes what  is  known  as  "  Curled  Maple."  In  the  latter  the 
waves  are  quite  uniform  and  evenly  repeated.  Both  these 
features — especially  the  former  —  add  much  to  its  value 
for  cabinet  and  interior  finish.  Even  when  the  fibre  is 
plain,  it  is  largely  used  for  these  purposes,  and,  fortunately, 
fashion  does  not  dictate  that  it  shall  be  tarnished  with 
stain.  It  takes  glue  well  and  when  well  seasoned  is  little 
affected  by  moderate  changes  of  humidity  in  the  surround- 
ing atmosphere.  Flooring  manufactured  from  it  has  no 
superior  if  an  equal  for  hardness  and  durability,  and  it  is 
largely  used  for  halls  and  other  public  rooms.  It  is  also 
used  for  shoe-lasts,  turnery,  handles,  and  many  other  pur- 
poses where  hardness  and  fine  finish  are  demanded.  It  is 
not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  soil.  It  is  an 
excellent  fuel  and  the  resultant  ash  is  rich  in  potash.  When 
the  forests  were  cut  down  to  clear  the  land  for  farms,  it 
was  a  common  practice  to  save  the  ashes,  where  the  logs 
were  burned,  from  Maple  and  a  few  other  hardwoods,  leach 
them  and  boil  down  and  calcine  the  lye  in  large  cast-iron 
vessels  called  "  potash  kettles,"  when  the  product  would 
be  an  impure  carbonate  of  potash  commercially  known  as 
"  pearlash." 

Only  from  the  Birches  is  there  so  copious  a  flow  of  sap 
as  from  the  Sugar  Maple  of  the  Northern  States.  If  the 
sapwood  is  wounded  in  late  autumn  the  flow  sometimes 
manifests  itself  after  a  cold  night  that  is  succeeded  by  a 


SUGAR   MAPLE 
Photographed  by  J.  Horace  MiFarlaml. 


SUGAR  MAPLE  279 

warm  day,  but  the  flow  is  greatest  in  late  winter  and  early 
spring,  ceasing  as  the  buds  swell.  The  trees  are  "  tapped  " 
and  the  sap  gathered  and  evaporated,  producing  the  well- 
known  delicious  maple  sugar  and  syrup,  a  large  amount 
of  which  is  annually  manufactured  in  the  Northern  States. 
The  three  or  four  outer  annual  layers  of  sapwood  yield 
nearly  all  the  sap,  which  contains  more  saccharine  matter 
than  flows  from  any  other  tree  except  Hickory,  from  which 
latter  tree,  however,  there  is  a  very  slight  discharge. 

It  is  a  prolific  seed-bearer  after  the  age  of  thirty-five 
or  forty  years,  but  seldom  produces  any  before  that.  The 
seeds  ripen  early  in  autumn  and  are  so  well  known  that  a 
description  of  them  is  not  worth  while.  They  should  be 
gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  stratified  in  moist  sand  —  but 
by  no  means  very  moist  —  and  kept  in  a  cool  place  where 
they  will  not  dry  out.  Freezing  will  not  injure  them.  They 
can  be  sown  in  the  seed-bed  in  late  fall  or  early  spring. 
Unfortunately  the  percentage  of  fertility  is  low,  frequently 
not  averaging  twenty-five  per  cent ;  hence  they  should  be 
sown  thick  enough  to  compensate  for  that.  At  three  or 
four  years  of  age  the  plants  can  be  transferred  to  the  forest. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  transplanting  in  the  nursery  will 
pay,  as  the  tree  does  not  have  a  tap-root  and  has  many 
fibrous  ones.  Only  strengthening  the  root  system  would  jus- 
tify it.  It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  transplant.  Plants  can 
be  frequently  secured  in  the  forests,  where  they  may  be 
found  under  the  parent  trees,  and  where,  unless  removed, 
they  will  eventually  die  from  want  of  light. 

The  tree  is  a  moderately  rapid  grower  after  four  or  five 
years  of  age.  In  the  Southern  States,  however,  it  makes  a 
rapid  growth  from  the  very  first.  The  tree  lives  to  an  old 
age,  and  in  the  forest  is  seldom  seriously  affected  by  in- 
sects or  disease ;  but  in  the  open  it  sometimes  is  attacked 
by  a  species  of  borer.  No  information  can  be  obtained  of 
any  attempt  to  grow  it  for  lumber  alone,  — although  largely 
planted  as  an  ornamental  tree,  —  but  it  can  be  safely  as- 
sumed that  it  will  thrive  when  set  out  in  proper  situations. 


280  THE   MAPLES 

The  distances  apart  at  which  the  plants  should  be  set  should 
be  from  five  to  six  feet,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
soil.  As  an  ornamental  tree  it  has  no  superior  and  few 
equals,  but  it  cannot  endure  the  smoke  and  dust  of  the  city- 
streets  as  well  as  the  Oriental  Plane  and  Norway  Maple 
—  both  foreigners. 

Silver  Maple:  Soft  Maple:  Acer  saccharinum 

This  tree  belongs  to  the  Soft  Maple  class  and  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  United  States,  although  seldom 
found  near  the  Atlantic  Coast.  While  it  is  known  by  some 
ten  different  names,  it  is  generally  called  Silver  Maple, 
from  the  silvery  sheen  of  the  underside  of  its  leaves,  and 
Soft  Maple  because  its  wood  is  softer  than  that  of  the 
Hard  Maple.  It  is  very  variable  both  in  form  of  growth 
and  character  of  the  lumber  it  produces,  brought  about,  no 
doubt,  through  climatic  and  other  conditions.  There  are 
two  distinct  varieties, besides  several  lesser  ones  —  the  latter 
not  here  considered.  One  has  an  open  crown,  with  long, 
slender  limbs,  sometimes  specialized,  and  with  quite  large 
indented  leaves.  This  variety  has  large  seeds.  The  other 
has  a  more  compact  crown,  with  limbs  of  moderate  length, 
rather  small  leaves  not  deeply  indented,  and  small  seeds. 
The  former  is  the  more  rapid  grower.  Both  are  light-de- 
manding, and  in  a  dense  stand  will  grow  to  a  height  of 
eighty  or  ninety  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet.  In  the 
open,  they  develop  a  straggling  crown,  with  specialized 
limbs,  and  a  stem  of  four  feet  in  diameter  next  the  ground. 
The  similarity  of  the  two  varieties  is  so  great  that  they 
will  be  here  considered  as  identical. 

Its  best  development  is  along  stream  banks  where  the 
soil  is  moist  and  rich.  In  such  situations  it  grows  to  its 
greatest  size.  It  does  not  attain  a  large  size  in  high  and 
dry  situations,  notwithstanding  that  it  will  persist,  in  some 
localities,  in  attempting  to  grow  there.  It  is  a  nuisance  in 
some  places  in  the  East,  especially  on  high,  dry,  cut-over 


SILVER  MAPLE  281 

lands.  It  is  an  early  and  prolific  seed-bearer  and  the  seeds 
are  readily  scattered  by  the  winds.  Being  a  rapid  grower 
when  young,  it  shuts  out  or  suppresses  more  valuable  spe- 
cies. If  injured  in  any  way  it  is  liable  to  throw  up  sprouts 
which  never  attain  a  large  size.  All  this,  however,  gives  it 
a  value  for  the  farmer's  woodlot,  and  it  is  quite  extensively 
planted  in  the  prairie  states,  and  farther  west,  for  that 
purpose. 

The  wood  is  moderately  hard,  but  by  no  means  as  hard 
as  that  of  Hard  Maple.  It  is  strong,  close-grained,  easily 
worked,  but  rather  brittle.  The  heartwood  is  generally  a 
dark  brown  —  sometimes  an  umber  color  —  and  the  sap- 
wood  is  nearly  white  and  very  thick.  A  tree  seldom  devel- 
ops heartwood  before  the  age  of  fifty  or  sixty  years.  The 
sapwood  is  sometimes  used  for  flooring  when  combined 
with  some  darker  wood.  Lumber  cut  from  the  tree  is  used 
for  cheap  furniture  and  many  other  purposes  where  not  ex- 
posed to  the  ground  or  weather.  It  is  especially  adapted 
to  turnery  and  is  used  for  paper  pulp.  It  is  not  a  first-class 
fuel,  but  answers  a  fairly  good  purpose  if  well  seasoned. 

It  blooms  in  early  spring  and  before  the  appearance  of 
the  leaves.  The  seeds,  as  soon  as  ripe,  should  be  promptly 
planted,  and  in  fairly  good  ground  may  be  expected  to 
make  a  growth  of  a  foot  or  more  the  first  year.  The  stam- 
inate  blossoms  may  be  on  one  tree  and  pistillate  ones  on 
another,  or  both  on  the  same  tree.  If  the  latter  is  not  the 
case,  there  is  great  danger  that  the  seeds  will  be  infertile. 
It  is  not  a  difficult  tree  to  grow  in  the  nursery  or  transplant 
into  the  forest.  It  may  be  set  in  the  forest  when  one  year 
old,  but  would  better  be  left  in  the  nursery  another  year. 
Its  flow  of  sap  is  abundant,  but  it  is  low  in  saccharine 
matter.  The  trees  should  be  planted  from  five  to  six  feet 
apart. 


THE  MAPLES 


Eed  Maple  :  Sc ablet  Maple  :  Acer  ruhrum 

This  tree  is  very  common,  and  but  few  are  as  widely 
distributed  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Its  red  twigs, 
red  blossoms,  and  early  red  autumn  leaves  make  it  quite 
distinct  from  the  Silver  Maple,  although  in  some  localities 
its  general  appearance  is  such  as  has  led  to  a  confusion  in 
the  mind  of  the  casual  observer.  Its  natural  habitat,  how- 
ever, is  in  moister  ground  ;  in  fact,  it  is  practically  a  swamp 
tree,  although,  like  the  Silver  Maple,  it,  in  some  localities, 
proves  itself  a  pest,  and  for  the  same  reasons.  Its  wood  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  Silver  Maple  and  is 
used  for  the  same  purposes.  No  distinction  is  made  in  the 
market.  Both  are  sold  as  "  Soft  Maple,"  and  no  one  is 
wronged.  If  its  cultivation  is  undertaken,  it  should  be  along 
the  same  lines  as  for  Silver  Maple,  except  that  the  ground 
chosen  should  be  moister  and  more  care  exercised  in  gather- 
ing seeds,  for  it  is  more  given  to  produce  pistillate  flowers 
on  one  tree  and  staminate  on  another.  It  blossoms  early  in 
the  spring,  —  in  some  localities  earlier,  if  anything,  than 
the  Silver  Maple,  frequently  in  March  ;  the  seeds  are  ripe 
in  May  and  should  be  promptly  gathered  and  sown.  Like 
the  Silver  Maple  it  is  a  rapid  grower,  especially  in  early 
life,  and  can  be  removed  into  the  forest  when  only  one  year 
old,  and  like  that  tree  it  is  a  fairly  good  fuel ;  its  cultiva- 
tion for  that  purpose  alone  would  be  warranted,  especially 
on  ground  too  wet  for  better  species  ;  but  the  cultivation  for 
timber  of  neither  the  Silver  nor  Red  Maple  would  be  justi- 
fied anywhere  if  better  species  can  be  grown  in  the  same 
locality. 


YELLOW  POPLAR:   TULIP-TEEE: 

Liriodendron  tidijnfera 

This  valuable  tree  is  generally  called  Yellow  Poplar,  or, 
less  frequently,  Tulip-tree.  The  latter  is  the  most  appro- 
priate name,  for  it  is  not  a  Poplar  at  all.  It  is  one  of  the 
only  two  remaining  representatives  of  many  species  which 
grew  in  long-past  geologic  times.  One  of  these  is  indigen- 
ous to  this  country  and  the  other  to  China.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  it  is  burdened  with  fifteen  different  names,  —  un- 
meaning and  foolish,  —  it  is  generally  known  in  the  lumber 
trade  as  Yellow  Poplar.  In  some  localities,  however,  the 
heartwood  is  nearly  white  and  softer  than  in  other  regions, 
and  to  distinguish  such  from  lumber  generally  cut  from 
the  tree,  it  is  designated  as  White  Poplar,  or,  more  fre- 
quently, Whitewood.  Just  why  the  heartwood  is  nearly 
white  in  some  localities  and  light  yellow  in  others  is  not  well 
understood  ;  but  it  probably  arises  from  a  difference  in  soil 
or  climatic  conditions,  as  there  is  but  the  one  species  here. 

A  line  bounding  its  natural  range  runs  from  Massachu- 
setts west  to  southern  Illinois,  thence  south  to  eastern  Ar- 
kansas and  western  Mississippi  to  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
from  there  to  southern  Georgia  and  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
to  Massachusetts.  It  is  the  most  abundant  and  of  the  best 
development  in  the  valleys  tributary  to  the  Ohio  River, 
and  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  in  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  the  Virginias.  At  their  best 
Tulip-trees  have  been  found  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  one 
hundred  and  forty  feet  high.  Trees  from  three  to  five  feet 
in  diameter  are  not  at  all  exceptional  in  virgin  forests.  It 
is  not  found  in  pure  stands,  but  is  mingled  with  other 
broadleaf  trees,  seldom  among  Pines  and  Hemlock. 

It  is  decidedly  light-demanding,  and  when  grown  crowded 
will  push  up  a  smooth,  straight,  moderately  tapering  stem, 


284  YELLOW  POPLAR 

until  it  fairly  overcomes  its  competitors  for  light,  frequently 
showing  in  adult  trees  seventy-five  or  more  feet  without  a 
limb.  When  it  attains  a  mastery  in  the  struggle  for  light, 
it  will  develop  large  limbs  instead  of  increasing  in  height ; 
but  if  overtaken  by  its  neighbors,  and  the  contest  is  re- 
newed, it  will  again  mount  upward  and  leave  its  ambitious 
large  limbs  to  care  for  themselves  or  die.  These  will,  in 
time,  die  and  drop  off,  and  decay  in  the  main  stem  is  likely 
to  follow.  When  growing  in  the  open,  it  forms  a  conical 
crown,  the  lower  limbs  reaching  out  so  far  that  the  base  of 
the  cone  is  nearly,  or  quite,  as  great  as  its  height.  Its  lead- 
ing shoot,  however,  maintains  its  ascendancy  and  a  forked 
tree  is  seldom  seen.  Here,  as  well  as  when  growing  among 
competitors  for  light,  the  foliage  will  mainly  be  found  at 
the  outer  ends  of  the  limbs,  where  it  forms  so  dense  a  cov- 
ering that  the  twigs  and  small  limbs  there  will  die. 

The  wood  is  soft,  straight-grained,  easily  worked,  not 
strong,  and  is  more  or  less  brittle  according  to  age.  It 
takes  glue,  stain,  and  paint  well,  no  wood  except  White 
Pine  rivaling  it  in  the  latter  feature.  In  most  trees  the 
heartwood  is  a  light  yellow  or  brown,  with  thin,  creamy 
sapwood ;  but,  as  stated,  in  some  sections  the  heartwood  is 
nearly  white,  though  not  strictly  so.  There  is  little  distinction 
between  spring  and  summer  wood.  The  medullary  rays  are 
small  and  inconspicuous.  It  is  not  durable  when  exposed 
to  the  ground.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish,  furniture,  and 
nearly  all  purposes  for  which  White  Pine  is  fitted. 

Unfortunately  its  propagation  is  difficult,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  not  over  ten  per  cent,  if  so  much,  of  its  seeds  are 
fertile,  and  it  has  fleshy  roots  with  few  fibrous  ones,  and, 
hence,  is  difficult  to  transplant  successfully.  It  bears  seed  in 
great  abundance  and  when  quite  young.  One  thirteen  years 
old  produced  seed  and  has  continued  to  do  so  for  three 
successive  years,  although  not  abundantly  until  the  last 
year.  It  sends  up  shoots  from  the  crown  of  the  roots.  Some- 
times these  make  a  strong  and  healthy  tree  suitable  for 
the  saw. 


YELLOW  POPLAR  285 

It  was  claimed  a  few  years  ago  that  the  tree  could  be 
propagated  from  cuttings  the  same  as  the  Poplars  and 
Willows.  Repeated  and  varied  efforts  to  grow  it  iu  that 
way  have  proved  complete  failures.  Except  such  few  as 
may  come  from  sprouts,  growing  the  trees  from  the  seed 
must  be  the  only  method  of  propagation.  The  seed  ripens 
in  the  early  fall,  but  the  cones  do  not  open  until  the  leaves 
are  shed.  As  soon  as  the  leaves  turn  yellow,  the  cones  may 
be  gathered,  and  when  dry  the  seeds  will  fall  from  the 
cone  stem.  They  would  best  be  sown  in  the  fall ;  but  if  not 
they  should  be  stratified  in  sand  and  kept  in  a  cool  place, 
one  dry  enough  to  prevent  moulding,  yet  damp  enough  to 
prevent  drying-out,  and  then  be  sown  in  the  spring  as  soon 
as  the  ground  will  permit.  It  frequently  requires  two  years 
for  the  seed  to  germinate. 

Yellow  Poplar  is  remarkably  free  from  insect  enemies 
or  disease  of  any  kind.  Decay  of  the  stem  from  dead  limbs 
is  about  the  only  malady  affecting  it.  It  should  be  added 
that  great  care  has  to  be  taken  in  felling  large  trees,  be- 
cause of  their  liability  to  break  when  they  strike  the  ground. 
It  will  grow  in  almost  any  fertile  soil,  if  not  too  wet,  and 
even  in  one  so  sterile  as  to  be  of  little  use  for  agriculture. 
Some  fine  specimens  were  found  on  the  mountains  of  Penn- 
sylvania, where  the  ground  was  ill  fitted  for  cultivation 
because  of  lack  of  fertility ;  yet  the  tree  will  show  high 
appreciation  of  a  generous  soil  to  grow  in.  Seedlings  attain 
a  height  of  about  six  inches  the  first  year ;  after  that,  the 
tree  is  a  rapid  grower  until  it  reaches  maturity.  In  order 
to  secure  fibrous  roots,  the  seedlings  would  best  be  trans- 
planted into  the  transplant  nursery  when  one  year  old  and 
remain  there  two  years,  when  they  will  be  strong  enough 
to  hold  their  own  against  their  surroundings  in  the  forest. 

Lumber  cut  from  good  trees  stands  among  the  Soft- 
woods next  in  value  to  White  Pine,  and  no  effort  should 
be  spared  to  assist  natural  reproduction,  —  which  is  fairly 
good,  if  permitted,  —  and  artificial  cultivation  should  be 
undertaken  notwithstanding  the  drawbacks. 


CHESTNUT  :  Castanea  dentata 

If  our  timber  trees  were  classified  according  to  their 
economic  importance  and  the  profits  which  may  arise  from 
their  cultivation,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  Chestnut 
should  be  placed  high  in  that  list.  It  has  been  spared  the 
infliction  of  a  multitude  of  names.  Only  the  red  man  ever 
deigned  to  call  it  anything  but  Chestnut.  As  always,  he 
gave  it  a  significant  appellation  —  "  0-heh-yah-tah,"  mean- 
ing prickly  burr.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  is  long- 
lived  and  grows  to  a  large  size.  There  are  well-authentic- 
ated records  of  its  having  reached  a  diameter  of  eleven 
feet,  but  such  a  growth  was  found  only  in  trees  standing 
more  or  less  in  the  open,  and  which  did  not  attain  a  great 
height.  When  grown  in  a  crowded  situation,  it  has  been 
known  to  reach  a  height  of  over  one  hundred  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  seven  feet.  The  average  size  of  mature  trees 
in  a  virgin  forest,  on  ground  not  too  dry,  is  between  twenty 
and  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter,  and  eighty  to  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  height.  When  found  above  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter, it  is  quite  frequently  worm-eaten.  When  grown  in 
close  stands,  it  will  produce  a  tall,  straight  stem,  free  from 
limbs  for  two  thirds  of  its  height,  with  slight  taper  ;  but 
when  grown  in  the  open,  it  forms  a  low,  round,  but  some- 
what irregular  crown,  and  frequently  has  specialized  limbs. 

It  may  be  found  from  the  southern  part  of  Maine  to 
Georgia,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  westwardly  to  the 
Mississippi  River,  thence  north  to  northern  Michigan,  and 
eastwardly  through  that  state  and  on  through  New  York 
and  the  New  England  States.  Its  best  development  is  to 
be  found  in  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, the  west  portion  of  the  Virginias,  North  Carolina,  and 
Tennessee.  South  of  the  Potomac  River  it  is  best  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.    It  accepts 


CHESTNUT  287 

a  variety  of  soils,  —  but  not  wet  ones,  —  ranging  from 
loose  sand  and  decomposed  shale  to  dry,  rocky  ridges  and 
mountain  slopes,  but  does  not  take  kindly  to  limestone 
land.  Neither  does  it  demand  a  high  state  of  fertility.  It 
is  a  rapid  grower  until  it  reaches  sixty  or  seventy  years  of 
age,  when  its  lessening  powers  of  growth  become  manifest 
in  the  gradually  diminishing  thickness  of  the  annual  rings  ; 
yet,  if  not  injured,  it  still  retains  enough  vital  force  to 
maintain  a  moderate  growth  for  centuries.  Careful  count- 
ing, in  widely  separated  sections  of  the  country,  of  the  an- 
nual rings  in  hundreds  of  telegraj^h  and  telephone  poles, 
whose  length  was  forty  feet,  with  a  top  diameter  of  not  less 
than  six  inches,  showed  that  their  ages  ran  from  forty-three 
to  sixty-seven  years,  averaging  a  trifle  over  fifty-six. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  coarse-grained,  quite  strong  in 
young  trees,  but  weak  in  old  ones.  Young  growth  is  liable 
to  warp  and  check  when  seasoning,  but  this  can  be  avoided 
by  proper  piling.  It  splits  easily,  and  in  former  times  was 
much  used  for  fence  rails.  It  is  durable  when  exposed  to 
the  weather  or  soil.  The  heartwood  is  a  light  reddish  brown, 
with  light-colored  sapwood  which  seldom  exceeds  eight  an- 
nual layers.  There  is  a  notable  difference  between  spring 
and  summer  wood,  and  consequently  the  annual  layers  are 
very  distinct  and  prominent.  The  medullary  rays  are 
scarcely  discernible  to  the  naked  eye.  Until  within  the  last 
fifty  years  it  was  little  used  except  for  fence  posts  and  fence 
rails.  Now  it  is  largely  consumed  for  all  sorts  of  posts 
entering  the  ground,  and  for  railroad  ties,  interior  finish, 
furniture,  shingles,  and  general  construction.  Old  and 
worm-eaten  Chestnut  is  largely  used  for  burial  caskets, 
foundations  for  veneers  for  doors  and  panels,  piano  cases, 
and  other  like  work;  such  wood  being  especially  valuable  for 
that  purpose,  as  it  neither  shrinks  nor  warps  when  packed 
up,  and  takes  glue  well.  Beyond  all  this,  it  is  now  largely 
used  to  furnish  tannic  acid  for  the  tanneries,  the  whole 
tree  being  employed  for  that  purpose,  and  large  areas  are 
being  denuded  in  consequence. 


288  CHESTNUT 

Propao^ation  can  be  cari'ied  on  by  sprout  gi'owth  or  by 
seeds.  Above  all  others  of  our  valuable  timber  trees,  Chest- 
nut can  best  be  depended  upon  to  reproduce  itself  from 
sprouts.  Other  species  will  quite  frequently  throw  up 
sprouts  from  the  stump  when  the  tree  is  cut,  but  none  so 
uniformly  or  vigorously.  If  the  stump  is  cut  low,  the  sprouts 
will  throw  out  roots  and,  in  a  measure,  develop  an  inde- 
pendent root  system.  Old  trees  will  proportionally  send  up 
more  sprouts  than  young  ones,  but  they  will  not  be  as  vigor- 
ous. It  is  true  that  sprouts  seldom  attain  sawlog  size,  but 
they  will  reach  pole  and  tie  dimensions  if  the  root  system 
has  not  been  exhausted  by  frequent  fires  or  cuttings.  While 
we  have  had  but  little  experience  in  repeated  harvesting 
of  sprout  growth,  observation  shows  that  the  root  system 
of  such  growth  is  enfeebled  by  successive  removal  of  the 
sprouts,  and  that  eventually  seed-planting  must  be  resorted 
to  if  the  forest  is  to  be  maintained  in  perpetual  vigor  and 
productiveness.  It  must  be  patent  to  every  one  that  all 
superfluous  sprouts  should  be  removed  in  order  to  allow  a 
vigorous  growth  in  the  few  that  are  allowed  to  remain. 
The  number  left  must  be  determiued  by  conditions.  If  the 
original  stand  was  dense,  few  should  be  permitted  to  grow, 
but  there  must  be  enough  left  to  compel  a  tall  and  straight 
growth  and  develop  a  satisfactory  forest  floor. 

Propagation  from  seed  is  not  at  all  difficult  if  rightly 
conducted.  The  tree  is  a  prolific  seed-bearer,  and,  more- 
over, bears  seed  when  quite  young,  —  frequently  at  the 
age  of  ten  years,  —  and  there  is  seldom  any  difficulty  in 
securing  a  supply.  It  blossoms  late  in  June  or  early  in 
July,  and  the  seed  is  ripe  about  the  first  of  October,  hence 
seed-bearing  is  not  likely  to  be  interfered  with  by  frosts. 
The  prickly  envelope,  commonly  called  burr,  inclosing  the 
seed,  is  too  well  known  to  demand  a  description.  The  nuts 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  fall  out  of  the  burrs, 
and  be  at  once  planted  where  the  trees  are  to  grow  in  the 
forest,  or  stored  away  where  they  will  neither  dry  nor 
become  heated  or  mouldy.    There  are  but  few  valuable 


CHESTNUT 
Photographed  by  J.  Horace  McFarland. 


CHESTNUT  289 

timber  trees  whose  seed  is  so  susceptible  of  injury  as  the 
Chestnut.  Any  drying,  heating,  moulding,  or  even  wilting, 
will  affect  their  vitality,  and  the  sooner  they  are  put  into 
the  ground  after  they  are  ripe  the  more  certainty  there  is 
of  success  ;  hence  fall  planting  should,  if  possible,  be  car- 
ried out.  Fall  planting  has  only  one  drawback  —  the  lia- 
bility of  squirrels  and  mice  digging  up  the  nuts.  If  fall 
planting  is  not  adopted,  then  the  nuts  should  be  stratified 
with  sand,  which  must  be  moist  but  not  very  wet,  and  kej^t 
out  of  doors  where  they  will  be  cool.  Freezing  will  do  no 
harm,  but  will  be  beneficial  if  the  sand  does  not  become 
dry.  Planting  where  the  trees  are  to  grow  is  urged  because 
they  have  a  prominent  tap-root  which  seriously  resents  be- 
ing interfered  with,  although  there  ai-e  laterals  thrown  out 
in  early  life  which  attain  a  large  size  in  old  age.  But  for 
all  that,  it  is  a  deep-rooted  tree,  and  it  is  seldom  that  one 
is  blown  down  by  the  wind.  It  does  not  throw  out  lateral 
roots,  however,  until  too  large  to  be  always  successfully 
transplanted.  By  removing  into  the  transplant  nursery 
when  one  year  old  and  carefully  handling  them,  a  portion 
can  be  made  to  grew,  but  it  takes  a  long  time  for  them  to 
recover  from  the  shock  and  become  vigorous,  an  event 
which  seldom  occurs. 

It  is  light-demanding,  and  close  planting  is  certain  to  cause 
it  to  grow  tall  and  straight,  and  drop  its  lower  limbs,  and 
that  system  should  by  all  means  be  adopted.  But  little  plant- 
ing of  Chestnut  for  timber-growing  has  been  done  in  this 
country,  and  no  exact  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the  dis- 
tance apart  that  the  young  trees  should  be  planted,  but 
it  will  be  safe  to  place  them  from  five  to  six  feet,  and  as 
soon  as  they  become  large  enough  for  posts  and  poles,  thin 
out  as  conditions  may  indicate. 

Its  abundance,  coupled  with  its  ability  to  reproduce 
itself,  has  enabled  it  to  meet  fairly  well  the  demand  made 
upon  it,  but  the  great  variety  of  uses  to  which  it  is  now 
being  put  will  soon  cause  a  very  rapid  shrinkage  in  supply, 
and  the  promise  for  the  future   is  not  bright.  Until  re- 


290  CHESTNUT 

cently,  Chestnut  has  suffered  little  from  insect  attacks  or 
diseases  of  any  sort,  except  that  it  is  liable  to  be  worm-eaten 
when  old  ;  but  in  1905  a  fungus  disease  appeared  on  the  trees 
on  Long  Island,  and  from  there  it  has  extended  into  Con- 
necticut, Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Delaware.  It  is  very  contagious  and  fatal.  No 
tree  has  been  known  to  recover  when  once  attacked,  and 
there  is  no  known  remedy,  and  none  may  ever  be  found. 
Borne  on  the  winds  and  the  feet  of  birds,  or  by  insects, 
the  spores  of  the  fatal  fungus  lodge  in  every  crevice  and 
crack  in  the  bark  where  it  is  possible  for  them  to  find 
their  way  into  the  living  tissues  of  the  cambium  layer, 
whence  it  extends  to  the  entire  tree.  The  spores  multiply 
with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  the  end  of  the  tree's  life  is 
soon  reached.  In  some  cases  the  tree  dies  the  first  year, 
and  but  few  survive  the  second.  It  is  a  very  serious  mat- 
ter, and  may  rob  the  country  of  one  of  its  most  valuable 
timber  trees.  Pennsylvania  has  appropriated  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  thousand  dollars  to  combat  it.  A  conven- 
tion was  held  at  Harrisburg,  February  19,  1912,  to  provide 
for  concerted  action  to  suppress  the  malady.  It  was  at- 
tended by  over  two  hundred  delegates,  representing  not 
only  the  forestry  departments  of  several  states  and  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  but  also  the  New  York  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Stations  and  such  educational  institu- 
tions as  Yale,  Harvard,  Cornell,  Lehigh,  and  Pennsylvania 
universities  and  the  Pennsylvania  State  College.  Little 
hope  was  held  out  that  a  remedy  could  be  found.  All  that 
is  being  done  thus  far  —  aside  from  ascertaining  the  bound- 
aries of  the  disease  —  is  confined  to  cutting  down  infected 
trees  and  burning  all  parts  not  used  for  lumber  or  other 
purposes.  The  fatality  of  the  disease  and  its  rapid  spread 
indicate  that  planting  would  not  be  advisable,  certainly  not 
until  a  remedy  can  be  found. 


BLACK   CHERRY:   WILD   CHERRY:  Prunus 
serotina 

In  most  sections  of  our  country  people  have  been  content 
to  call  this  tree  by  the  above  names  —  mainly  the  first.  In 
two  states,  however,  it  has  been  given  the  name  of  Rum 
Cherry,  quite  suggestive  of  the  use  to  which  the  fruit  is 
now  and  then  put  in  adding  flavor  to  certain  alcoholic 
beverages.  In  the  lumber  trade  it  is  designated  as  "  Cherry," 
and  as  it  is  the  only  species  out  of  a  half-dozen  in  this 
country  from  which  lumber  is  cut,  there  can  be  no 
criticism.  But  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  furniture 
manufacturer  who  stains  the  several  species  of  Birch  and 
palms  them  off  as  Cherry  ;  or,  if  his  conscience  rebels,  will 
give  them  the  name  of  Cherry  Birch.  It  is  true  that  the 
heartwood  of  old  Black  Birch  trees  much  resembles  in  color 
and  appearance  Black  Cherry,  and  if  the  Birch  did  not 
"warp  and  spring  when  subjected  to  changes  in  humidity, 
it  would  serve  as  a  fair  substitute. 

The  natural  range  of  Black  Cherry  covers  quite  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  United  States,  —  practically  all  east  of  the 
one  hundredth  degree  of  west  longitude,  —  but  it  is  not 
common  along  the  coast  region.  It  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment along  the  northern  portion  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. Probably  the  largest  and  best  trees  were  found  on 
the  slopes  and  along  the  streams  of  the  AUeghanies.  Trees 
one  hundred  feet  high  and  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter 
were  often  found  there,  although  the  average  diameter  of 
mature  trees  did  not  much  exceed  two  feet.  Grown  in  the 
open,  it  branches  out  low  down,  and,  as  years  go  on,  large 
specialized  limbs  are  formed  and  the  tree  is  practically  worth- 
less for  lumber;  but  forest-grown,  it  shoots  up  a  tall, 
smooth,  straight,  and  slightly  tapering  stem  without  limbs 
for  more  than  half  its  height. 


292  BLACK  CHERRY 

As  it  was  found  growing  on  rich  alluvial  soils  and  fertile 
slopes,  it  suffered  destruction  in  early  days  for  the  same 
reason  that  Black  Walnut  did,  —  it  was  in  the  way, —  and 
like  that  tree  it  was  burned  or  split  into  rails.  It  was  soon 
discovered,  however,  that  it  was  one  of  the  best  woods  for 
furniture.  In  early  times  it  was  used  more  for  that  purpose 
than  Black  Walnut,  and  to-day  it  stands  second  for  such 
uses  only  to  that  tree  among  our  native  woods,  while  in  the 
minds  of  many  it  is  not  deemed  inferior;  but  like  that  tree 
it  is  close  on  to  extinction. 

It  thrives  best  in  a  moist,  rich  soil,  although  it  will  grow 
quite  well  on  a  dry  and  loamy  one  which  is  neither  fertile 
nor  moist.  To  aid  its  growth  in  such  soils,  it  has  a  large 
root  system  which  runs  deep  into  the  ground,  and  it  like- 
wise throws  out  large  and  long  lateral  roots  near  the  sur- 
face. In  soils  adapted  to  its  best  development,  it  is  a  rapid 
grower  in  early  life,  but  as  age  advances  its  annual  accre- 
tions grow  less  and  less,  even  under  the  most  favorable 
surroundings.  Unless  the  situation  is  suitable,  it  soon  be- 
gins to  show  signs  of  declining  vigor  and  is  then  not  a 
long-lived  tree,  but  when  the  soil  and  surroundings  are  ac- 
ceptable, it  has  been  known  to  reach  three  hundred  years 
of  age.  It  was  nowhere  to  be  found  in  great  abundance, 
but  was  mixed  with  other  broadleaf  trees,  with  occasionally 
a  grove  of  a  score  or  more  of  its  own  kind  within  a  radius 
of  a  few  hundred  feet. 

The  wood  is  light,  easily  worked,  fine-grained  and  strong 
in  young  trees,  but  somewhat  softer  and  weaker  in  old  ones, 
straight-grained,  with  little  difference  between  spring  and 
summer  wood,  and  with  small  and  inconspicuous  medullary 
rays.  The  heartwood  is  reddish  brown,  with  thin,  yellowish 
sapwood  which  seldom  consists  of  over  ten  annual  layers. 
It  does  not  warp  or  split  in  seasoning,  and  "  stays  to  its 
place  "  when  put  in  trying  situations.  It  takes  glue  well, 
and  has  a  fine  satiny  finish  and  grows  darker  and  richer 
in  color  with  age.  Its  use  is  mainly  confined  to  furniture,  the 
interior  of  passenger  cars,  interior  woodwork  generally,  and 


BLACK  CHERRY,  NORTH  CAROLINA 
Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


BLACK  CHERRY  293 

to  other  cases  where  wood  is  wanted  that  will  neither  warp 
nor  shrink.  Young  and  vigorous  trees  have  lasting  qualities 
when  exposed  to  the  ground,  and  railroads  are  paying  as 
much  for  black  cherry  ties  as  for  white  oak.  It  has  long 
been  used  for  fence  posts,  and  this  has  led  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  much  young  growth. 

The  tree  is  a  good  seeder,  and  there  is  frequently  a  large 
yield  of  fruit,  the  pulp  of  which  has  a  sweet,  aromatic 
taste.  It  has  been  known  to  bear  fruit  in  the  open  at 
seventeen  years  of  age.  The  seed  proper  is  small  with  a  hard 
shell,  like  that  of  all  Cherries,  and  natural  seed-sowing  is 
almost  entirely  carried  on  by  birds  dropping  them,  although 
squirrels  and  mice  aid  to  a  limited  extent.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  the  tree  has  a  tap-root,  it  can  be  safely  transplanted 
when  young ;  hence  it  is  entirely  suitable  for  nursery  pro- 
pagation. If  the  young  plants  are  vigorous,  they  may  be 
removed  to  the  forest  when  two  years  old  but  would  best 
be  transplanted  into  the  nursery  when  one  year  old,  remain- 
ing in  the  transplant  nursery  for  two  years,  then  to  be  set 
out  in  the  forest.  The  fruit  ripens  about  the  first  of  Septem- 
ber and  should  be  at  once  gathered  and  cared  for.  If  there 
is  no  danger  of  squirrels  or  mice  destroying  them,  the  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  the  nursery  at  once.  In  such  cases  the 
pulp  may  be  left  on,  although  its  removal  will  allow  the 
seeds  to  be  planted  with  a  drill.  If  the  planting  is  to  be 
delayed  until  spring,  then  the  pulp  should  be  removed  and 
the  seeds  should  be  stratified  in  moist  sand  and  stored  away 
where  they  will  remain  moist,  but,  if  possible,  be  subjected  to 
freezing,  and  then  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible. 
They  should  be  placed  in  rows  about  eight  inches  apart 
and  covered  from  three  eighths  to  one  half  inch  deep,  and 
thereafter  be  treated  the  same  as  other  broadleaf  seedlings. 
In  no  case  should  the  seed  be  allowed  to  become  dry.  The 
seedlings  ordinarily  make  a  growth  of  six  inches  the  first 
year,  and  if  not  removed  may  grow  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches  the  next. 

As  the  tree  is  somewhat  capricious  in  choosing  its  loca- 


294  BLACK  CHERRY 

tion,  care  should  be  taken  in  selecting  ground  for  its  cul- 
tivation, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  will  grow  in  many 
soils  and  that  its  botanical  range  seems  to  be  great.  Old 
residents  can  still  be  found  to  tell  where  it  once  grew  to 
perfection,  and  no  mistake  can  be  made  if  such  locations 
are  chosen.  When  planted  in  the  forest  there  should  be  a 
crowded  stand,  either  with  its  own  or  other  species  of  equally 
rapid  growth.  It  lives  to  a  greater  age  when  so  surrounded 
than  when  out  in  the  open.  It  is  naturally  associated  with 
Beech,  Oak,  Hickory,  Maple,  Birch,  and  Yellow  Poplar, 
but  it  is  a  more  rapid  grower  in  early  life  than  any  except 
the  Poplar.^ 

In  suitable  situations  and  when  cared  for,  there  can  be 
few  more  valuable  trees  found  ;  but  with  all  its  good  quali- 
ties it  has  some  drawbacks.  One  is  a  caterpillar  that  makes 
its  nests  in  the  branches  and  sometimes  entirely  denudes 
the  tree  of  its  leaves.  Another  is  what  is  called  "  gum 
specks."  These  are  deposits  of  gum  in  the  wood  which  some- 
times disfigure  it  to  a  slight  extent.  When  wounded  the 
sapwood  will  exude  a  gum  something  like  gum  arabic.  It 
has  bitter  aromatic  bark  and  leaves.  These  contain  the 
well-known  poison  called  prussic  acid.    Cattle  have  been 

1  The  United  States  Forest  Service  {Notes  on  Forest  Trees  suitable  for 
planting  in  the  United  States  —  Black  Cherry)  gives  the  following  account  of 
the  growth  of  two  plantations  :  — 

"  In  a  block  planted  in  1878,  containing  196  White  Ash,  27  Catalpa,  and 
7  Black  Cherry  trees,  the  Cherry,  when  measured  in  1901,  was  the  largest, 
both  in  diameter  and  height.  The  following  was  the  average  size  of  the 
trees :  — 

Average  diameter  at  1  foot  from  the  ground 8.4  inches 

Average  diameter  at  7  feet  from  the  ground        6.4  inches 

Average  height         34.0  feet 

Average  clear  length  of  bole 19.0  feet 

"  In  another  block  containing  149  Black  Cherry  and  187  Catalpa  trees, 
the  latter  were  entirely  dominated  by  the  Cherry.  The  average  size  of  the 
Cherry  was :  — 

Average  diameter  at  1  foot  from  the  ground        6.6  inches 

Average  diameter  at  7  feet  from  the  ground       4.0  inches 

Average  height 32.0  feet 

Average  clear  length  of  bole 19.0  feet" 

As  the  Catalpa  is  a  notoriously  fast  growing  tree,  it  would  seem  that 
planting  Black  Cherry  in  pure  stands  would  be  advisable. 


BLACK  CHERRY  295 

poisoned  from  eating  the  withered  leaves,  and  children 
made  ill  by  eating  large  quantities  of  the  fruit  —  the  pois- 
onous element  being  the  same  as  in  peach  seeds.  There  is 
considerable  use  made  of  an  extract  of  the  bark  in  pul- 
monary complaints. 


THE  ELMS 

There  are  four  species  of  Elms  indigenous  to  the 
United  States  that  have  a  commercial  value.  They  are 
commonly  known  as  White  Elm  (^Ulmus  americana)^ 
Red  Elm  ( Ulmus  puhescens)^  Cork  Elm  ( Ulmus  race- 
niosa),  and  Cedar  Elm  ( Ulmus  crassifolia)  ;  but  their 
names  are  woefully  mixed  in  some  localities.  There  is  little 
economic  difference  in  the  value  of  the  wood,  and  few  con- 
sumers are  able  to  distinguish  the  lumber  cut  from  them, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  many  dealers  can  distinguish  them. 
For  many  purposes  there  is  little  choice  ;  none  are  suited 
for  general,  but  all  are  admirably  adapted  for  special  uses. 

White  Elm  :  Gray  Elm  :   Ulmus  americana 

Beyond  question  this  is  the  most  common  and  wide- 
spread of  all  the  Elms.  It  is  of  extended  range,  reaching 
from  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  eastward  over 
every  state  and  more  or  less  scattered  throughout  the  en- 
tire area.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  Elms  and  probably  pro- 
duces more  lumber  than  all  the  rest,  —  at  least,  it  has 
done  that  heretofore,  — and  for  most  purposes  the  lumber  is 
as  good  as  that  of  the  other  species.  The  tree  grows  to  an 
enormous  size  and  lives  to  a  good  old  age.  Professor  C.  S. 
Sargent,^  in  speaking  of  it,  says :  "  A  tree,  sometimes  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  with  a  tall 
trunk  six  to  eleven  feet  in  diameter,  frequently  enlarged 
at  the  base  by  great  buttresses,  occasionally  rising  with  a 
straight  undivided  shaft  to  the  height  of  sixty  to  eighty 
feet  and  separating  into  short  spreading  branches."  This 
is  an  excellent  description  of  many  a  forest-grown  Elm. 

The  trunk  of  a  White  Elm  that  grew  in  Jefferson  County, 
^  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America,  page  289. 


WHITE  OR  GRAY  ELM.  CHARLEVOIX    COUNTY,   MICHIGAN 
Photof/rnphed  hi)  American  Lrtmberman,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


WHITE  ELM  297 

Pennsylvania,  and  which  inexcusable  vandalism  destroyed, 
was  five  feet  iu  diameter  above  the  buttressed  base  and 
thirty-six  feet  to  the  first  limb,  where  it  was  a  trifle  over  four 
feet  in  diameter.  From  the  stump  to  the  topmost  part  of 
the  crown  was  one  hundred  and  forty  feet,  and  it  spread 
its  branches  seventy-six  feet.  The  stump  showed  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  annual  rings,  and  it  was  sound  to 
the  pith.  The  logs  cut  from  the  tree  scaled  8820  feet,  board 
measure.  Until  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  the  tree 
had  stood  in  a  dense  forest  of  mainly  Beech  and  Sugar 
Maple,  and  had  towered  fully  fifty  feet  above  its  neighbors. 

The  best  development  of  the  White  Elm  was  found  iu  the 
New  England  States.  Doctor  Holmes  in  The  Professor  at 
the  Breakfast-  Table^  tells  of  many  large  ones  which  gave 
him  great  pleasure  in  determining  their  dimensions.  To 
the  southward  it  is  less  common  and  of  smaller  size.  It 
flourishes  best  on  moist,  rich  bottom  lands  and  along 
streams,  but  does  well  on  low  foothills  and  in  well-drained 
"  swales,"  or  valleys.  It  is  not  as  vigorous  if  planted  on 
high,  exposed,  or  dry  places.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  iu  favora- 
ble situations.  It  has  been  recently  attacked  by  a  species 
of  beetle  which  may  prove  a  serious  obstacle  to  its  culti- 
vation ;  it  has  already  lessened  its  use  as  a  shade  tree. 
There  are  several  quite  distinct  forms.  Some  assume  a 
weeping  habit ;  others  form  a  compact  crown ;  while  still 
others  show  a  plume-shaped  crown. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  tough,  difiicult  to  split,  coarse- 
grained, strong,  with  light,  reddish  brown  heartwood  and 
rather  thick,  lighter-colored  sapwood.  The  annual  rings 
are  very  distinct,  as  is  also  the  difference  between  spring 
and  summer  wood.  The  medullary  rays  are  small  and  in- 
conspicuous. It  is  commonly  credited  with  being  durable 
when  in  contact  with  the  soil  or  where  it  is  alternately  wet 
and  dry.  This  is  an  error,  for  it  decays  quickly  in  such 
situations.  Both  Red  and  Cork  Elm  are  more  durable 
when  exposed.  It  is  used  in  the  construction  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  and  in  other  places  where  toughness  and 


298  THE  ELMS 

resistance  to  being  split  are  required.  It  is  also  largely 
used  for  wheelbarrow  bottoms  and  for  cheap  furniture,  but 
the  greatest  demand  for  it  is  for  light  cooperage,  for  both 
staves  and  hoops.  For  a  time  it  was  looked  upon  as  the 
only  wood  suitable  for  that  purpose,  but  its  rapid  exhaus- 
tion has  forced  coopers  to  seek  and  use  other  woods ;  it 
still  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  in  adaptability  for 
such  use. 

It  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  sprout  from  the  stump, 
and  consequently  its  propagation  must  come  from  seed, 
which  is  not  at  all  difficult.  The  tree  blossoms  in  early 
spring  and  before  the  leaves  appear.  It  matures  its  seed 
late  in  May  or  early  in  June  before  the  leaves  are  full  grown, 
and  the  seed  should  be  at  once  gathered  and  sown.  The 
seeds  are  surrounded  with  a  thin  film  or  continuous  wing, 
and,  being  light,  are  blown  a  long  distance  by  the  wind. 
The  seed-bed  should  be  a  sandy  soil,  or  one  which  will  not 
crust  over  after  a  rain,  the  seeds  sown  in  drills  seven  or 
eight  inches  apart,  and,  as  not  all  seeds  are  fertile,  from 
one  half  to  one  inch  apart  in  the  row.  An  abundance  of 
moisture  is  requisite  for  good  germination  and  growth  of 
seedlings.  They  should  attain  a  height  of  eight  to  twelve 
inches  the  first  year,  and  can  then  be  transplanted  into  the 
forest  any  time  thereafter,  although,  if  to  be  set  out  among 
bushes,  it  would  be  best  to  let  them  remain  in  the  beds  for 
another  year,  when  they  will  frequently  reach  thirty  inches 
in  height.  They  are  blessed  with  a  large  number  of  fibrous 
roots,  and  if  reasonable  care  is  taken  in  transplanting  not 
three  per  cent  should  be  lost.  It  is  a  comparatively  shallow- 
rooted  tree,  and  when  mature  throws  its  roots  out  to  a  great 
distance,  as  may  be  frequently  seen  along  stream  banks 
where  they  have  been  exposed.  The  sap  pores  in  the  roots 
are  very  large,  frequent,  and  continuous.  Water  can  be 
easily  forced  through  them  for  several  feet. 

In  order  to  grow  valuable  lumber,  the  tree  must  be 
crowded  in  early  life  to  prevent  its  throwing  out  limbs  low 
down,  one  or  more  of  these  frequently  putting  forth  efforts 


RED   ELM  299 

to  become  leaders.  When  grown  in  tlie  open  in  early  life  it 
has  little  value  for  lumber.  It  is  not  known  that  it  has  been 
planted  for  forest  purposes  in  this  country,  and  a  careful 
examination  of  young  growth  coming  on  from  natural  seed- 
ing must  be  our  guide  as  to  the  distance  apart  the  trees 
should  stand  in  the  forest,  —  probably  from  six  to  seven 
feet,  according  to  fertility  and  moisture  of  the  soil.  The 
tree  has  so  many  valuable  features  that  it  will  be  safe  to 
plant  largely,  especially  in  situations  where  it  may  not  be 
profitable  to  cultivate  land  for  farm  crops,  as  along  streams 
that  frequently  overflow  their  banks,  and  where  it  may 
be  too  wet  to  cultivate  at  all,  or  difficult  to  get  at.  While 
there  are  better  species  of  trees  for  lumber,  this  can  be 
grown  where  but  few  superior  ones  will  thrive. 

Eed  Elm  :  Slippery  Elm  ;   Ulmus  pubescens 

This  tree  has  substantially  the  same  range  as  the  White 
Elm.  It  can  be  grown  in  all  respects  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  tree,  and  its  wood  can  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses, with  the  additional  advantage  that  it  resists  decay 
longer  when  exposed  to  the  soil.  It  prefers  the  same  kind 
of  soil  as  the  White  Elm,  but  it  seldom  attains  a  height  of 
over  sixty  feet  or  a  diameter  of  more  than  two  feet.  It  is 
quite  similar  in  general  appearance  to  the  other  Elms,  but 
its  leaves  are  larger  and  rougher.  It  grows  more  rapidly 
when  young,  but  it  is  not  long-lived,  and  its  thick,  live  bark 
is  heavily  charged  with  mucilage  which  is  frequently  used 
in  medicine. 

The  heartwood  is  brown-red  and  the  sapwood  thin  and 
light-colored.  The  heartwood  is  strong,  tough,  coarse- 
grained, and,  except  being  darker  in  color  and  resisting 
decay  longer,  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  White 
Elm.  The  time  of  blossoming  and  ripening  the  seeds  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  White  Elm,  but  the 
seeds  have  a  much  wider  film  or  continuous  wing.  Its  cul- 
tivation should  be  along  the  same  lines. 


300  THE  ELMS 


Cork  Elm  :   Ulmus  racemosa 

Until  within  the  last  few  years  this  tree  has  been  gen- 
erally known  by  the  name  here  given  it,  but  for  some  rea- 
son the  lumber  trade  has  seen  fit  to  call  it  Rock  Elm,  and 
Hard  Elm,  according  to  location.  The  name  Cork  Elm  is 
eminently  proper  and  should  be  retained,  for  it  is  significant 
of  a  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  dead  bark  on  the  trunk 
and  limbs.  The  tree's  range  is  from  New  Hampshire  west- 
ward along  the  Canadian  line  to  Nebraska,  southward  to 
central  Tennessee,  and  eastward  to  the  coast.  It  is  not 
common  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  or  east  of  central 
Pennsylvania.  The  region  of  its  best  development  is  in  the 
Lake  States,  especially  Michigan  and  Minnesota,  where  it 
grows  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
four  to  four  and  one  half  feet,  with  a  slightly  tapering 
stem,  sometimes  free  from  limbs  for  more  than  one  half  its 
height.  While  it  will  grow  in  rather  dry,  gravelly  soil,  it 
thrives  best  in  moist,  rich  valleys  and  along  alluvial  stream 
banks.  It  is  more  tolerant  of  shade  than  the  other  Elms, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  like  the  others,  it  throws  out 
large  limbs  low  down  when  grown  in  the  open.  In  some 
cases  the  interior  of  the  crown  is  filled  with  twigs  and 
leaves,  which  would  not  occur  if  it  were  very  exacting  of 
light.  One  variety  of  the  Cork  Elm  has  a  drooping  habit 
and  consequently  is  called  "Weeping  Elm." 

The  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Red  Elm,  is 
hard,  heavy,  tough,  and  strong ;  heartwood  light  brown, 
with  thick,  lighter-colored  sapwood.  It  is  more  durable  than 
the  White,  but  less  so  than  the  Red  Elm,  and  its  general 
uses  are  about  the  same  as  are  that  of  the  latter.  It  is 
largely  used  for  agricultural  implements,  and  sometimes 
for  railroad  ties,  and  is  said  to  serve  fairly  weU  for  that 
purpose. 

Its  flowers  appear  in  early  spring  and  before  the  leaves 
do.    The  seed  ripens  when  the  leaves  are  about  half  grown 


CEDAR  ELM  301 

and  should  be  at  once  gathered  and  planted,  for  drying 
destroys  their  vitality.  It  cannot  be  learned  that  any  effort 
has  been  made  to  grow  it  for  forestry  purposes,  although 
one  variety —  the  weeping  one  —  has  been  successfully  prop- 
agated for  ornamental  use.  Evidently  propagation  should  be 
along  the  same  lines  as  for  the  White  Elm.  In  the  region 
of  its  best  development  it  is  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  White 
Elm  and  in  such  localities  is  equally  worthy  of  cultivation. 

Cedar  Elm  :  JJlmus  crassifolia 

This  Elm  is  confined  in  its  range  to  Mississippi,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Texas,  where  it  grows  to  a  fair-sized  tree,  and  the 
wood  is  said  to  be  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
other  Elms.  Little  can  be  learned  concerning  the  tree,  and 
whether  it  will  justify  efforts  at  propagation  is  entirely 
conjectural.  The  only  response  the  author  has  been  able  to 
get  to  inquiries  concerning  it  is  that  it  "  is  as  good  as  any 
other  Elm." 


BASSWOOD:  Tilia 

While  botanists  find  six  species  of  Basswood  in  the 
United  States,  only  three  of  them  have  any  economic  value 
as  timber  trees.  They  are  Basswood  (^Tilia  amerlcand)^ 
the  largest  and  best  of  the  three,  White  Basswood  (^Tilia 
heterophylla)^  and  Downy  Basswood  {Tilia  j^uhescens^. 
The  wood  of  these  is  nearly  alike  in  commercial  import- 
ance and  the  difference  in  the  trees  is  mainly  in  the  size, 
and  as  they  grow  in  substantially  the  same  sections  of  the 
country,  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  make  any  distinc- 
tion in  considering  them.  The  term  Basswood  will  include 
all  three.  In  some  markets,  however,  there  is  a  distinction 
made  in  the  lumber  trade.  White  Basswood  is  classed  sep- 
arately, but  the  distinction  is  not  general.  In  some  locali- 
ties all  Basswood  is  called  Linden.  That  is  the  name  it 
bears  in  Europe. 

The  natural  range  is  very  great.  With  the  exception  of 
Florida,  it  may  be  found,  more  or  less,  in  every  state  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  also  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  states  lying  next  to  that  river  on  the  west.  Its  best  de- 
velopment is  along  the  bottom  lands  and  in  the  rich  soils 
bordering  on  the  Ohio  River  and  its  tributaries,  although 
fine  specimens  once  grew  on  the  upper  tributaries  of  the 
Susquehanna  River.  Doubtless  it  was  produced  in  greatest 
abundance  and  of  the  best  quality  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio. 
It  seldom  grew  in  pure  stands,  and  when  so  found  was  lim- 
ited to  small  areas.  Its  most  acceptable  neighboi's  are  Ash, 
Hickory,  Elm,  Cherry,  Yellow  Poplar,  Beech,  and  occa- 
sionally Oak  and  Black  Walnut,  all  luxuriating  in  a  rich, 
moist  soil.  It  will  grow  indifferently  well  in  a  dry,  poor 
soil,  yet  it  would  not  be  a  profitable  tree  to  plant  in  such 
soil,  as  it  is  not  a  rapid  grower  after  thirty  or  thirty-five 
years  of  age.  Nor  should  it  be  planted  in  situations  exposed 


hASSwoon 

I'liotographed  by  J.  Horace  MrFarland. 


BASSWOOD  303 

to  strong  winds,  as  the  wood  is  somewhat  weak  when 
green. 

It  can  endure  considerable  shade,  and  to  make  it  grow 
tall  and  free  from  limbs,  it  must  be  crowded  in  early  life 
and  until  it  reaches  its  height  growth,  when,  if  so  situated, 
it  will  grow  a  tall,  slightly  tapering  stem,  free  from  limbs 
for  forty  or  more  feet.  When  it  once  overcomes  its  com- 
petitors, it  will  throw  out  a  rounded  and  somewhat  open 
top,  with  specialized  limbs.  Trees  have  been  occasionally 
found  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
high,  with  a  diameter  of  four  feet,  but  such  growth  is  very 
unusual.  A  tree  eighty  feet  high  and  thirty  inches  in  di- 
ameter may  be  considered  a  large  tree.  Old  trees  are  fre- 
quently hollow,  and  in  many  cases  the  heartwood  is  found 
entirely  decayed  for  a  portion  of  its  height,  and  the  tree 
still  growing,  showing  that  the  only  function  the  heartwood 
performs  is  to  support  the  trunk  and  crown  against  the  wind. 
The  roots  of  the  Basswood  run  deep,  and  have  been  known 
to  penetrate  fourteen  feet  and  clog  a  sewer  pipe. 

The  wood  is  soft,  generally  straight-grained,  and  of  fine 
texture,  not  strong  but  tough,  with  light-brown  heartwood 
and  an  extremely  thick  and  nearly  white  sapwood.  There 
is  little  difference  between  spring  and  summer  growth,  and 
the  medullary  rays  are  small  and  inconspicuous,  plainly 
distinguishable  in  the  live  bark,  however.  Boards  cut  from 
Basswood  can  be  steamed  and  bent  into  many  shapes  suit- 
able for  carriagework  and  like  purposes.  It  takes  glue, 
stain,  and  paint  well,  and  is  largely  used  for  carriage  pan- 
els and  cabinetwork,  exterior  and  inside  finish,  cheap  fur- 
niture, toys,  wood  carving,  pulp,  and  many  other  purposes 
where  light  soft  wood  is  required.  It  is  not  durable  when 
exposed  to  the  ground  or  to  the  weather  unless  protected  with 
paint.  Logs  cut  from  it  should  be  sawed  the  same  year  that 
they  are  cut  or  injury  will  arise  from  decay.  Lumber  cut 
from  some  trees  is  frequently  found  to  have  hard  black 
spots  and  streaks,  from  half  an  inch  to  two  or  more  inches 
long  and  from  a  narrow  streak  to  an  inch  or  so  wide,  and 


304  BASSWOOD 

somewhat  irregular  in  shape.  They  are  not  serious  defects 
and  their  cause  is  unknown. 

When  the  bark  is  peeled  in  early  summer  and  thrown 
into  water,  the  mucilaginous  parting  between  the  live  an- 
nual layers  soon  decays,  and  the  latter  separate  into  long, 
ribbon-like  strips  constituting  the  common  "  bast "  of  com- 
merce. 

Basswood  does  not  seed  until  about  thirty  years  of  age 
but  after  that  will  produce  seed  very  frequently,  sometimes 
every  year  for  a  long  period.  In  the  Middle  States  the 
blossoms  appear  in  early  July  and  the  seed  ripens  by  the 
first  of  October.  The  seed  is  encased  in  a  hard,  spherical 
shell,  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  When  this 
shell  is  removed,  the  seed  proper  will  still  be  found  encased 
in  another  hard  coating.  These  shells  prevent  moisture 
from  reaching  the  seed,  and  the  result  is  that  germination 
cannot  take  place  until  the  outer  shell  decays.  To  facilitate 
such  decay,  the  seeds  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  ripe, 
and  if  not,  they  should  be  stratified  in  wet  sand  and  placed 
where  they  can  be  alternately  frozen  and  thawed  during 
winter.  They  have  been  known  to  lie  in  the  ground  two 
years  without  any  very  perceptible  change.  There  is  as  yet 
no  known  method  of  hastening  the  decay  of  the  outer  shell 
without  destroying  the  vitality  of  the  seed.  Probably  strat- 
ifying in  sand  and  removing  such  as  show  evidence  of 
growth  in  the  spring  is  about  all  that  can  be  done.  The 
seeds  can  be  sown  in  the  seed-bed  the  same  as  Ash  or 
Maple.  The  seedlings  develop  a  stout  root  somewhat  akin 
to  a  tap-root,  but  they  can  be  deprived  of  it  without  much 
injury ;  yet  it  would  be  best  to  remove  them  into  the  trans- 
plant nursery  in  order  to  have  a  well-established  root  sys- 
tem when  set  in  the  forest.  As  the  tree  starts  growth  early 
in  the  spring,  and  will  not  stand  removal  after  the  leaves 
start,  early  planting  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  tree 
sprouts  from  the  stump  quite  freely,  but  sprouts  seldom 
attain  a  size  large  enough  for  sawlogs  without  being  de- 
cayed at  the  butt. 


BASSWOOD  305 

The  United  States  Forest  Service  recommends  planting 
Basswood  trees  five  feet  apart  each  way  in  the  forest.  This 
is  rather  close,  as  the  tendency  of  the  tree  is  to  grow^  tall 
even  in  the  open,  and  it  is  not  given  to  throwing  out  large 
limbs  until  it  has  reached  a  considerable  height ;  six  feet 
apart  would  be  close  enough.  Its  rapid  growth  when  young 
would  insure  a  good  forest  floor  in  a  few  years.  There  are 
few  diseases  affecting  it,  and  the  value  of  the  lumber  —  for 
we  have  nothing  that  can  satisfactorily  take  its  place  — 
should  warrant  endeavors  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of  germ- 
ination and  cause  the  tree  to  be  planted  extensively.  Its 
flowers  are  highly  charged  with  nectar,  and  honey  gathered 
from  it  has  a  delicious  flavor.  In  some  sections  it  is  called 
the  "  Bee  Tree,"  partly  because  of  its  honey-laden  flowers 
and  partly  because  colonies  of  wild  bees  occupy  the  hollow 
spaces  occasionally  found  in  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 


THE  BIRCHES 

Of  the  eight  species  of  Birch  in  the  United  States,  only- 
three  are  of  enough  economic  importance  to  warrant  con- 
sideration. These  are  Black  Birch  {Betula  lenta,  frequently 
called  Cherry  Birch  and  Sweet  Birch),  Yellow  Birch  (^Bet- 
ula  lutea^  sometimes  called  Gray  Birch),  and  Paper  Birch 
(^Betula  papyrifera^  in  some  localities  called  Canoe  Birch). 
There  is  still  another  species  which  is  occasionally  converted 
into  lumber,  but  its  habitat  is  along  low  stream  banks ; 
hence  the  supply  is  quite  limited.  It  is  the  Red  or  River 
Birch  {Betula  nigra),  and  can  be  depended  upon  to  pro- 
pagate itself  if  allowed  to. 

Black  Birch  :  Betula  lenta 

In  general  make-up  this  species  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
other  Birches,  and  it  is  not  of  so  extended  a  range  nor  so 
common  where  it  does  grow.  Neither  does  it  shed  its  annual 
layers  of  dead  bark  as  do  the  others,  and  its  wood  is  harder 
and  more  valuable.  Its  range  is  from  Maine  westward  to 
southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  and  along  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  to  central  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  it  is 
occasionally  found  in  western  Florida  and  northern  Georgia. 
In  the  Northern  States  its  companions  in  the  forest  are 
Beech,  Sugar  Maple,  Black  Cherry,  White  Ash,  and  Yellow 
Birch.  It  grows  well  on  fairly  dry  ground,  but  prefers  a 
deep,  rich  soil. 

Its  wood  is  strong,  heavy,  —  green  logs  from  thrifty  trees 
will  sink  in  water,  —  and  is  a  very  good  substitute  for 
Hickory  for  heavy  wagon  axles  and  similar  purposes.  It  is 
excelled  in  hardness  by  few  of  our  timber  trees,  and  only 
Hickory  is  superior  to  it  for  fuel.  From  its  close  resem- 
blance to  Black  Cherry,  both  in  texture  and  color  when 


YELLOW  BIRCH  307 

finished,  the  old  heartwood  is  frequently  substituted  for  it  in 
furniture  and  interior  finish,  and  the  possessor  of  it  is  little 
wronged.  The  heartwood  is  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  with 
light  yellow  sapwood  frequently  composed  of  fifty  or  sixty 
annual  layers.  It  is  close-grained,  with  very  small  and  in- 
conspicuous medullary  rays.  It  takes  glue  well,  and  shows 
a  satiny  texture  when  properly  finished. 

It  is  of  extremely  slow  growth,  and  seldom  attains  a  large 
size  before  decay  sets  in.  While  furnishing  valuable  timber, 
its  slow  growth  will  prevent  its  profitable  reproduction  by 
planting.  Natural  regeneration  occurs  wherever  an  oppor- 
tunity is  given,  as  it  is  a  prolific  seeder  and  the  seeds  are 
scattered  widely  by  the  winds.  Whatever  the  future  of  the 
tree  may  be,  it  must  rest  entirely  upon  natural  reproduction. 
Aside  from  the  general  uses  of  the  wood  referred  to,  the 
twigs,  small  branches,  and  bark  are  distilled  for  the  essen- 
tial oil  they  contain,  which  is  palmed  off  on  an  unsuspect- 
ing purchaser  as  "  wintergreen,"  and  he  is  not  so  greatly 
wronged  as  he  might  be,  for  it  is  preferred  by  some  to  the 
genuine  article.  When  tapped  or  wounded  in  the  spring, 
Black  Birch  yields  an  enormous  amount  of  slightly  sacchar- 
ine sap,  which  will  flow  about  the  time  the  buds  burst  and 
the  leaves  begin  to  appear. 

Yellow  Birch  :  Gray  Birch  :  Betula  lutea 

This  is  a  very  common  tree  in  the  Northern  States,  rang- 
ing from  the  Canadian  line  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennes- 
see. Like  several  other  species  of  trees,  its  wood  was  not 
deemed  valuable  until  conditions  forced  its  use.  Until  re- 
cent years  lumbermen  left  it  in  the  woods  either  to  blow 
down,  be  burned,  or  scatter  its  light,  winged  seeds  far  and 
wide  when  its  cones  opened,  which  occurs  early  in  the  fall.  A 
brisk  wind  will  carry  the  seeds  for  miles.  In  some  localities 
this  feature  makes  it  more  than  a  weed  tree,  —  it  becomes 
a  pest,  as  it  grows  rapidly  in  early  life  and  suppresses  more 
valuable  species.  In  old  age  it  grows  slowly,  and  in  some 


308  THE  BIRCHES 

sections  of  the  country  is  liable  to  become  hollow  when  large 
enough  for  the  saw.  Trees  sometimes  attain  a  height  of 
ninety  or  one  hundred  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four  feet,  but 
such  dimensions  are  rare. 

The  wood  is  close-grained,  heavy,  strong,  compact,  hard, 
but  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  the  ground. 
The  heartwood  is  light  brown  tinged  with  red,  with  sapwood 
thin  and  nearly  white.  There  is  little  difference  between 
spring  and  summer  wood,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  small 
and  inconspicuous.  It  takes  glue  and  stain  readily,  —  all 
Birches  do  that,  —  and  so  close  an  imitation  of  dark  ma- 
hogany is  attained  with  it  that  only  the  very  expert  are  un- 
deceived ;  yet  a  slight  bruise  will  disclose  the  counterfeit. 
It  is  used  mainly  for  furniture  and  interior  finish,  veneers 
for  panels  and  seats,  boxes,  and  for  many  purposes  where 
a  rather  hard  and  strong  wood  is  required.  It  is  fairly  good 
fuel  and  will  serve  a  good  purpose  in  the  farmer's  woodlot. 

Its  companions  in  the  forest  are  Black  Cherry,  White 
Ash,  Maple,  Basswood,  Black  Birch,  Beech,  and  it  may 
occasionally  be  found  growing  with  Hemlock.  In  northern 
New  England,  Yellow  Birch  grows  abundantly  with  Red 
Spruce.  All  the  above-named  hardwoods  are  far  better  for 
timber  than  it  is,  and  as  they  will  grow  in  the  same  locali- 
ties, and  in  the  same  soil,  they  would  best  be  grown  in  its 
stead.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  it  will  reproduce  itself  nat- 
urally and  it  will  be  seen  that  any  effort  to  grow  it  artifi- 
cially, except,  it  may  be,  in  the  woodlot,  would  be  useless. 
Like  the  Black  Birch,  it  will  give  an  abundant  flow  of 
slightly  saccharine  sap  if  wounded  in  late  spring. 

Paper  Birch  :  Betula  papyrifera 

In  many  respects  this  tree  resembles  the  Yellow  Birch. 
Both  shed  annual  layers  of  dead  bark  when  young,  the 
Paper  Birch  characteristically  so.  In  old  age  the  annual 
layers  of  bark  cease  to  separate  and  the  bark  becomes  thick 
and  firm.  This  feature  is  taken  advantage  of  by  Indians 


PAPER  BIRCH  309 

and  others  who  make  the  well-known  bark  canoes  of  it. 
This  gives  it  the  name  of  Canoe  Birch.  The  thin,  creamy- 
white  layers  of  bark,  which  separate  when  the  tree  is  com- 
paratively young,  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  paper, 
hence  its  botanical  designation,  papyrifera.  Like  the  Yel- 
low Birch,  the  tree  is  a  prolific  seeder,  and  its  seeds  are 
blown  to  a  great  distance,  and  natural  reforestation  readily 
occurs. 

Its  natural  range  is  in  the  northern  portions  of  our  coun- 
try, and  where  seen  in  the  Middle  States  it  seldom  attains 
a  size  suitable  for  a  sawlog,  generally  reaching  the  pole 
stage  only  and  even  falling  below  that.  Its  best  develop- 
ment is  in  the  states  bordering  on  the  Canadian  line. 

The  wood  is  light,  very  close-grained,  strong,  tough,  and 
hard  when  seasoned.  The  heartwood  is  light  brown,  tinged 
with  red,  and  the  sapwood  is  thick  and  nearly  white.  It  is 
largely  converted  into  spools,  and  for  that  use  is  shipped 
to  Europe.  It  is  also  made  into  "  excelsior,"  and  is  like- 
wise used  for  pulp,  turnery,  veneers,  and  fuel.  Like  the 
other  Birches,  its  natural  reproduction  can  be  depended 
upon.  In  fact,  it  will,  if  allowed  to,  crowd  out  all  other 
species  on  a  cut-over  or  burned  tract.  Its  propagation  for 
lumber  should  not  be  undertaken.  It  is  useful,  however,  in 
covering  the  surface  of  burned  districts  and  preventing 
erosion  of  the  soil. 


BEECH :  Fagus  amei^icana 

This  well-known  tree  is  distributed,  intermittently, 
throughout  nearly  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  It  is  one  of  the  very  few  trees  that  have  escaped 
a  number  of  names.  It  is  universally  known  as  Beech,  al- 
though in  some  sections  it  is  called  Red,  White,  and  Ridge 
Beech.  It  was  long  used  for  a  limited  number  of  pur- 
poses, but  as  other  species  of  timber  trees  became  scarce, 
it  has  been  made  to  play  its  part  in  fui-nishing  a  supply  of 
lumber,  and  it  is  now  put  to  many  uses,  mainly  because 
nothing  better  can  be  secured  for  the  money.  Homer  says 
the  Beech  is  "the  tree  of  Father  Jupiter."  When  grown 
in  a  dense  stand,  it  sends  up  a  straight,  smooth,  and  slightly 
tapering  stem,  clear  of  limbs  for  fully  one  half  or  more 
of  its  height,  with  comparatively  small  and  short  crooked 
limbs  ;  but  when  in  the  open,  it  branches  out  low  down  and 
forms  a  rather  dense  and  rounded  crown.  It  is  tolerant  of 
shade,  as  much  so  as  any  of  our  timber  trees.  It  has  been 
known  to  reach  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet, 
with  a  diameter  of  forty  inches,  but  the  average  of  what 
may  be  called  mature  trees  is  much  less,  ordinarily  reach- 
ing a  height  of  seventy-five  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eighteen 
to  twenty  inches. 

There  is  quite  a  prevalent  belief  that  there  are  two  spe- 
cies in  this  country,  Red  and  White  Beech.  That  is  a  mis- 
take. When  in  the  open,  the  tree  grows  rapidly  in  early 
life.  It  is  not  unusual  for  it  to  make  an  annual  growth  of 
one  fourth  or  even  five  sixteenths  of  an  inch  during  the 
first  thirty  or  forty  years  of  its  life,  and  nearly  all  of  this 
will  be  sapwood  and  white  ;  but  in  the  forest  its  growth  is 
slower,  and  for  some  unknown  reason  the  change  from  sap- 
wood  is  there  more  rapid  and  the  relative  amount  of  sap- 
wood  is  much  less  ;  this  has  given  rise  to  the  belief  in  two 


Photographed 


BEECH 

1/  J.  Horace  AfcFarland. 


BEECH  311 

species.  Like  that  of  all  other  trees  the  sapwoocl  will  decay 
sooner  than  the  heartvvood,  and  because  Beech  trees  were 
found  lying  on  the  ground  in  the  deep  woods,  with  the  sap- 
wood  all  rotted  away  and  the  red  heartwood  sound,  it  was 
assumed  that  "  Red  Beech  "  was  a  distinct  species. 

The  wood  is  strong,  tough,  hard,  but  not  durable.  It  is 
close-grained,  with  little  distinction  between  spring  and 
summer  growth.  It  is  difficult  to  season.  The  heartwood  is 
quite  red  and  the  sapwood  nearly  white.  The  sapwood  is 
mainly  chosen  for  plane  stocks,  saw  handles,  and  other  uses 
where  wood  is  required  capable  of  taking  on  a  fine  finish  or 
withstanding  wear.  It  is  used  for  turned  and  other  parts  of 
cheap  furniture,  and  is  now  being  converted  into  flooring. 
It  has  long  been  known  as  "  clothes-pin  wood,"  and  for  a 
time  that  was  about  the  most  extensive  use  it  was  put  to. 

It  is  not  an  early  or  a  frequent  seed-bearer,  but  generally 
produces  a  generous  crop  when  it  does  fruit.  It  may  be 
readily  grown  by  planting  the  little  triangular  nuts,  but  as 
it  is  a  difficult  tree  to  transplant,  the  seeds  would  best  be 
sown  where  the  ti'ees  are  to  grow.  It  has  many  lateral  roots, 
which,  when  growing  in  the  forest,  run  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  These  are  filled  with  adventitious  buds, 
which  spring  into  growth  as  the  tree  advances  in  age,  and 
a  dense  undergrowth  naturally  results,  and  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  producing  a  natural  stand,  but,  as  a  rule,  these 
do  not  produce  large  trees.  Still,  they  will  serve  an  excel- 
lent purpose  for  fuel,  and  a  young,  vigorous  Beech,  pro- 
perly seasoned,  has  few  superiors  for  such  use,  either  in  a 
closed  stove  or  on  the  open  hearth.  Yet  this  tendency  to 
grow  from  sprouts  should  not  govern  in  the  decision 
whether  it  is  to  be  grown  to  the  exclusion  of  better  trees, 
such  as  White  Ash,  Black  Cherry,  Sugar  Maple,  Basswood, 
and  some  others,  which  naturally  grow  with  it  in  our  for- 
ests. These  superior  trees  can  be  more  readily  propagated, 
and  hence  artificial  reproduction  of  the  Beech  can  hardly 
be  justified,  except  in  the  case  of  the  farmer's  woodlot, 
where  it  could  be  made  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 


312  BEECH 

production  of  excellent  fuel.  In  such  cases  it  need  not  be 
planted  as  closely  as  when  grown  for  saw  timber,  for  the 
trees  will  produce  a  greater  weight  of  wood  when  grown 
ten  or  twelve  feet  apart  than  if  planted  closely  enough  to 
compel  thera  to  drop  their  lower  limbs  when  young.  Its 
little  nuts  are  rich  and  delicious  and  are  highly  prized  by 
men  and  nut-eating  animals  of  all  kinds.  They  should  be 
gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  not  allowed  to  become  at  all 
dry,  for  their  vitality  will  be  destroyed  if  they  do.  They 
should  be  planted  at  once  or  stratified  in  moist  sand  until 
spring  and  placed  in  the  ground  as  soon  as  conditions  will 
permit.  Beech  is  a  favorite  timber  tree  in  Europe,  but  it 
is  there  quite  distinct  in  growth  and  character  —  in  fact, 
a  different  species. 

In  some  localities  it  is  seriously  affected  with  what  is 
known  as  "  white  rot."  A  fungus  attacks  it,  and  while  the 
outside  may  be  alive  nearly  the  whole  interior  is  decayed. 
The  United  States  Forest  Service  states  that  ninety-five 
per  cent  of  the  Beech  in  the  Adirondack  forests  of  New 
York  is  affected.  The  disease  is  known  to  exist  quit?  seri- 
ously elsewhere. 


BLACK   WALNUT:  Juglans  nigra 

In  the  early  settlement  of  our  country,  trees  were  cut 
down  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  land  for  agri- 
culture, and  few  or  none  suffered  more  from  such  work  than 
Black  "Walnut.  This  came  about  because  it  occupied  the 
best  and  most  fertile  lands  in  the  valleys  and  the  low 
foothills  bordering  the  principal  streams,  and  hence  was 
the  first  to  be  attacked.  Large  numbers  of  trees  were  cut 
down  and  burned.  As  it  is  very  durable  when  exposed,  and 
splits  easily,  it  furnished  the  fence  rails  for  many  a  farm. 
Later  it  was  discovered  that  the  wood  was  very  valuable, 
and  then,  without  any  consideration  for  a  future  supply,  its 
destruction  went  on  rapidly,  and  it  is  now  nearing  exhaus- 
tion. At  present  lumber  cut  from  that  tree  brings  in  the 
market  the  highest  price  of  any  of  our  native  woods.  Nor  is 
its  value  limited  to  lumber  cut  from  the  body  of  the  tree,  in 
the  sawmill,  as  is  the  case  with  nearly  all  other  species  of 
timber  trees,  but  limbs,  crotches,  and  stumps  are  sought  to 
be  worked  into  veneers,  gunstocks,  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses where  fancy  woods  are  desired.  Stumps  of  trees  cut 
years  ago  are  being  dug  up  and  bring  large  sums.  Old 
fence  rails  have  been  gathered  for  turnery,  and  old  furni- 
ture secured  and  cut  into  veneers  and  for  other  purposes 
for  which  it  was  fitted. 

The  natural  range  of  the  Black  Walnut  is  from  Massa- 
chusetts west  to  eastern  Nebraska,  south  from  there  to 
eastern  Texas,  near  the  Gulf  ;  thence  easterly  to  Florida, 
and  from  there  through  western  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas 
to  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  on  northward  to  Massachusetts. 
It  also  grows  in  Canada  along  the  St.  La\\Tence  Kiver.  Its 
best  development,  both  in  size  and  quality,  was  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  and  on  the  fertile  slopes  of  the  Appa- 


314  BLACK   WALNUT 

lachians  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  It  revels  in 
rich  bottom  lands  and  on  fertile  hillsides,  where  it  grows 
most  rapidly  and  yields  the  best  lumber.  Thus  far  efforts 
to  grow  it  outside  of  its  natural  home  have  not  proved  very 
successful ;  yet  such  attempts  may  have  been  made  in  un- 
suitable soils,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  by  transplanting 
trees  instead  of  planting  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  grow. 
This  last  would  account  for  practically  all  failures,  even  if 
the  soil  and  location  were  what  the  tree  demands  —  in  both 
of  which  it  is  very  exacting,  few  trees  more  so.  If  soil  and 
location  favor  and  the  seed  be  planted  where  the  tree  is  to 
remain,  it  will  be  found  a  rapid  grower  and  good  results 
will  follow.  It  will  grow  in  a  not  very  fertile  soil  and  in 
comparatively  dry  ground,  but  the  growth  will  be  slow  and 
the  quality  of  the  wood  inferior. 

It  is  decidedly  a  light-demanding  tree.  If  grown  in  the 
open,  it  throws  out  limbs  low  down,  which  become  large, 
crooked,  and  forked,  though  not  particularly  specialized, 
each  one  striving  to  become  the  largest.  If  crowded  in  early 
life,  it  will  send  up  a  tall,  straight,  slightly  tapering  stem 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  In  height,  clear 
of  branches  for  more  than  one  half  its  height,  with  a  diame- 
ter of  even  six  feet ;  but  such  trees  are  seldom  found. 

The  heartwood  is  a  rich  dark  brown,  with  a  rather  thin 
and  nearly  white  sapwood.  It  is  hard,  strong,  durable  ;  is 
generally  straight-grained  and  splits  easily;  of  a  very  fine, 
satiny  texture ;  takes  glue  well,  and  is  susceptible  of  a  very 
fine  finish.  The  wood  is  easily  worked,  and  there  is  little 
difference  between  spring  and  summer  wood  either  in  hard- 
ness or  color.  It  is  rather  coarse-grained,  with  quite  con- 
spicuous pores  mingled  with  the  spring  and  summer  wood, 
but  the  medullary  rays  are  not  prominent  or  very  numer- 
ous. The  crotches  and  roots  are  beautifully  waved  and 
mottled  and  are  almost  invariably  cut  Into  veneers  or  made 
into  gunstocks.  Such  parts  of  the  tree  as  are  not  used  for 
these  purposes  are  now  mainly  devoted  to  fine  furniture, 
interior  finish  of  expensive  apartments  and  boats,  while 


BLACK  WALNUT  315 

large  quantities  are  cut  into  veneers.  Much  of  that  now 
harvested  is  shipped  to  Europe  in  the  log. 

The  tree  blossoms  late  in  May  and  ripens  its  fruit  in 
October.  The  nuts  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  for 
squirrels — to  which  should  be  mainly  credited  their  distri- 
bution in  the  forests  of  the  past  —  are  extremely  fond  of 
them.  They  should  be  at  once  planted  or  covered  in  layers 
of  sand,  where  they  can  be  frozen  during  winter,  and 
planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  In  no  case  should 
they  be  permitted  to  become  dry.  The  tree  develops  a  very 
prominent  tap-root  the  first  year  of  its  life,  frequently  going 
down  into  the  ground  twenty  or  more  inches,  while  the  stem 
may  not  have  raised  its  head  much  over  eight  inches  above 
the  surface.  It  resents  interference  with  this  feature  of  its 
development  and  seldom  fully  recovers  from  its  injury  or 
removal,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  will  naturally 
throw  out  prominent  lateral  roots  as  it  grows  older.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  growing  plants  in  the  nursery  and 
transplanting  them  into  the  forest,  or  anywhere,  cannot  be 
expected  to  result  in  complete  success.  The  only  certain 
way  is  to  plant  nuts  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  until  ma- 
ture. Fall  planting  will  be  best  if  there  is  no  danger  that 
squirrels  or  other  nut-eating  animals  will  destroy  them. 
They  should  be  covered  from  one  to  two  inches  deep,  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  seedlings  grow 
from  six  to  eight  inches  high  the  first  year,  and  will  make 
good  headway  in  their  struggle  with  unwelcome  neighbors. 
They  should  not  be  planted  in  the  shade. 

While  the  nuts  are  valuable  and  are  highly  prized,  no  re- 
turns from  these  should  be  expected  from  trees  grown  in 
the  forest,  for  they  will  not  bear  until  old,  and  then  spar- 
ingly. Those  grown  in  the  open  will  produce  fruit,  but  at 
what  age  is  not  definitely  known,  possibly  at  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years.  To  bring  forth  tall,  straight  trees,  free  of 
limbs  for  twenty  or  thii'ty  feet,  planting  must  be  close  and 
thinning  carefully  done.  Probably  six  by  six  feet  apart 
would  be  about  right  for  rich  ground,  but  five  by  five  feet 


316  BLACK  WALNUT 

would  serve  best  in  less  fertile  soil,  while  the  leader  should 
he  carefully  watched,  and  if  it  divides,  one  of  the  parts 
should  be  promptly  removed.  But  there  is  less  need  to 
grow  this  tree  slim  and  straight  than  with  most  others, 
owing  to  the  value  of  crotches  and  crooks.  Hence  trees 
grown  in  the  fields,  along  streets,  in  by-places,  wherever 
the  ground  is  suitable,  may  be  as  profitable  for  timber  as 
in  dense  stands,  and  more  so  for  fruit. 

The  great  value  of  the  wood  and  nuts  should  lead  to  its 
cultivation  wherever  land  is  suitable  and  not  too  valuable. 
There  are  small  areas  on  many  farms  located  within  its 
natural  range  which  cannot,  for  one  cause  or  another,  be 
devoted  to  tillage,  but  are  suitable  for  growing  this  tree, 
and  the  advisability  of  planting  such  is  obvious.  Unfor- 
tunately it  has  a  caterpillar  enemy  which  sometimes  strips 
it  of  its  leaves. 


BUTTERNUT :  Juglans  cinerea 

When  grown  in  the  open,  the  general  appearance  of  the 
Butternut  somewhat  resembles  the  Black  Walnut,  and  is 
frequently  mistaken  for  that  tree  by  persons  not  familiar 
with  both.  The  similarity  is  more  in  its  leaves,  however, 
than  in  any  other  feature.  It  seldom  forms  a  straight  stem 
and  can  rarely  be  seen  without  crooks,  crotches,  and  bends, 
even  where  crowded  in  the  forest.  It  is  emphatically  light- 
demanding,  and  to  secure  logs  at  all  satisfactory  for  the 
saw  it  must  be  grown  in  a  close  stand. 

It  may  be  found  more  or  less  along  streams  and  in  rich, 
moist  soil  from  Maine  to  northern  Georgia,  and  westward 
to  the  Mississippi  River.  In  some  sections  it  grows  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains  with  Maple,  Beech, 
Birch,  Cherry,  Oak,  and  White  Ash.  Trees  one  hundred 
feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter  have  been  known,  but 
they  are  very  rare.  It  seldom  exceeds  half  these  dimen- 
sions. It  is  a  rapid  grower  when  young,  but  is  much  given 
to  decay  when  old,  and  cannot  be  considered  a  long-lived 
tree. 

The  wood  is  very  light,  soft,  straight-grained,  of  a  beau- 
tiful satiny  texture,  and  susceptible  of  a  high  finish  —  by 
some  esteemed  equal  to  Black  Walnut.  When  stained,  it 
closely  resembles  that  wood,  but  such  treatment  is  little 
short  of  sacrilege,  for  it  is  beautiful  in  its  own  garb.  Its 
medullary  rays  are  inconspicuous.  There  is  little  differ- 
ence between  spring  and  summer  wood,  and  it  has  a  fine 
grain.  The  heartwood  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  growing 
darker  on  exposure,  with  a  thin,  nearly  white  sapwood, 
composed  of  not  more  than  six  or  seven  annual  rings. 
It  seasons  well  and  is  easily  worked.  It  is  used  for  furni- 
ture and  other  like  purposes,  and  also  for  pulp. 

The  tree  is  not  an  early  seed-bearer,  seldom   bearing 


318  BUTTERNUT 

fruit  before  thirty-five  years  of  age.  Neither  is  it  very  pro- 
lific when  it  does  fruit.  It  has  a  tap-root  and  hence  is  diffi- 
cult to  transplant,  and  such  trees  as  survive  the  operation 
are  short-lived.  Propagation  should  be  the  same  as  for 
Black  Walnut  in  all  respects,  as  it  is  closely  allied  to  that 
tree.  It  bears  a  delicious  nut,  and  trees  planted  where  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  is  difficult  or  unprofitable  will  amply 
pay  for  the  care  and  use  of  the  ground,  as  many  prefer 
the  nut  to  the  Walnut.  The  tree  is  sometimes  called  "  White 
Walnut,"  which  is  an  appropriate  name,  for  it  is  a  Walnut. 
However  beautiful  its  wood  or  however  rich  its  fruit,  it  can 
hardly  be  classed  as  a  profitable  timber  tree  owing  to  the 
peculiarities  noted. 


LOCUST :  Robinia  pseudacacia 

In  varying  localities  this  tree  is  respectively  called 
Yellow,  Black,  Green,  and  Red  Locust,  —  with  several 
other  prefixes,  —  but  the  lumber  trade  and  general  public 
know  it  as  "  Locust."  It  presents  an  interesting  illustra- 
tion of  the  possibility  of  spreading  a  tree  far  beyond  its 
natural  range.  Its  original  home  was  in  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  reaching  from  northern  Pennsylvania  to  north- 
ern Georgia,  with  its  best  development  on  the  w^estern 
slopes  of  the  mountains  of  West  Virginia.  It  has  been 
spread  by  cultivation  through  most  of  the  states  lying 
north  of  Georgia  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  westward  to  be- 
yond the  Mississippi  River,  and  has  recently  been  intro- 
duced into  California.  This  wide  extension  has  been  brought 
about,  in  part  because  of  its  usefulness  through  the  dura- 
bility of  its  wood  when  exposed  to  the  soil,  —  only  Red 
Cedar  and  Hardy  Catalpa  rivaling  it  in  that,  — in  part  for 
its  rapid  growth  when  young,  but  largely  for  ornamental 
purposes,  consequent  upon  its  profusion  of  white,  fragrant 
blossoms. 

Because  it  will  thrive  in  certain  localities  peculiarly  suited 
to  it,  it  has  been  too  frequently  deemed  adapted  to  all  in  that 
vicinity,  which,  in  many  cases,  is  not  the  fact.  In  its  native 
home  it  may  be  found  growing  vigorously  on  moist,  fertile 
soil,  especially  on  rich  bottom  lands  along  mountain  streams 
and  at  the  foot  of  hills,  while  on  high  mountain  slopes  and 
ridges  but  a  few  miles  away  it  may  be  of  much  less  econo- 
mic value ;  although  in  such  situations  it  may,  now  and 
then,  grow  tall  and  slim,  but  barely  large  enough  for  fence 
posts,  and  in  many  cases  it  may  die  before  reaching  that 
size,  or  grow  branched  and  crooked.  It  is  a  very  capricious 
and  much  overrated  tree,  and  before  planting  it  extens- 
ively for  any  purpose,  except  small  poles  and  posts,  great 


320  LOCUST 

care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a  suitable  location,  as  it  is 
less  reliable  outside  its  natural  habitat  than  withiu  it.  Be- 
sides its  exacting  demands  for  acceptable  soil  and  location, 
it  suffers  greatly  from  a  species  of  borer,  which  attacks  not 
only  the  stem  of  the  tree,  but  its  branches  and  even  small 
limbs,  and  against  this  assault  there  is  no  defense.  Pro- 
fessor C.  S.  Sargent,  in  his  Sllva,  says:  "The  value  of 
Rohinla  pseudacacia  is  practically  destroyed  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  beyond  the  mountain  forests 
which  are  its  home,  by  the  borers  which  riddle  the  trunk 
and  branches."  The  author's  recent  observations  in  West 
Virginia  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  borer  had  invaded  that 
region  and  was  doing  much  damage.  To  this  must  be 
added  that  in  many  localities,  including  some  portions  of  its 
natural  range,  a  dark  brown  beetle  commonly  called  the 
"  locust  leaf  miner,"  has  recently  attacked  its  leaves.  But  as 
there  are  locations  where  it  does  thrive,  and  where  neither 
beetle  nor  borer  has  yet  worked  serious  damage,  it  is  deemed 
justifiable  to  treat  of  its  character  and  the  best  methods  of 
propagation. 

In  its  best  development  trees  were  found  from  eighty  to 
ninety  feet  in  height  and  from  three  to  three  and  one  half 
feet  in  diameter,  but  such  dimensions  were  rare.  Its  average 
size  does  not  exceed  seventy-five  feet  in  height  or  more 
than  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  light-demanding, 
but  notwithstanding  that  fact  it  will  grow  quite  tall  in  the 
open,  while  in  some  localities  its  habit  is  to  separate  and 
throw  out  branches  low  down,  each  one  of  which  soon  sets 
up  a  struggle  for  supremacy  as  a  leader,  and  unless  sup- 
pressed or  removed,  the  contest  will  cause  the  tree  to  change 
its  form  and  shoot  upward  with  two,  three,  or  more  stems 
of  nearly  equal  size.  This  tendency  operates  strongly  against 
its  usefulness,  for  if  all  the  ambitious  stems  are  allowed  to 
grow,  it  will  require  a  much  longer  time  for  any  one  of  the 
several  branches  to  reach  a  useful  size  than  would  be  ne- 
cessary if  all  the  wood  could  be  grown  in  one.  Close  plant- 
ing will  somewhat  prevent  this,  but  cutting  back  all  but 


LOCUST  321 

the  straightest  and  most  -vigorous  stem  is  the  only  way  to 
control  it,  for  close  planting  has  its  drawbacks.  When 
close-planted  or  shaded  by  dominant  trees,  it  at  once  begins 
to  fail  in  vigor  and  show  decay. 

It  grows  rapidly  when  young,  and  when  in  favorable 
situations  will  make  a  yearly  growth  of  three  feet  in  height, 
with  an  increase  in  diameter  of  one  half  to  three  fourths  of 
an  inch.  But  even  in  the  most  acceptable  locations  this 
rate  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  more  than  twenty  or 
twenty-five  years  at  farthest.  It  generally  begins  to  fall  off 
in  rapidity  of  growth  when  fifteen  or  twenty  years  old,  and 
from  that  time  on  its  annual  rings  gradually  lessen  in 
thickness.  As  a  rule,  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  produce 
a  standard  railroad  tie  under  forty-five,  and  frequently 
not  under  fifty,  years  of  age.  It  is  well  adapted  to  growing 
fence  posts  and  will  do  that  in  twenty  to  thirty  years. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  strong,  hard,  coarse-grained,  stiff, 
and  extremely  durable  when  in  places  where  it  is  exposed 
to  the  soil  or  where  alternately  wet  and  dry.  The  heart- 
wood  is  generally  a  yellowish  brown,  but  occasionally  will 
have  a  pale  green  tinge.  The  sapwood  is  yellowish  white 
and  extremely  thin,  frequently  consisting  of  but  four  or 
five  annual  layers.  The  wood  is  principally  used  for  fence 
posts,  and,  where  large  enough,  for  railroad  ties,  in  ship- 
building, and  also  for  mudsills  and  in  places  where  great 
durability  is  desired.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  trees  large 
enough  for  sawed  lumber,  —  brought  about  mainly  by  the 
fact  that  the  most  valuable  stage  of  its  life  is  when  it  will 
make  fence  posts  and  ties,  —  there  is  but  little  manufac- 
tured locust  lumber  offered  in  the  market. 

It  is  one  of  the  few  valuable  species  of  our  forest  trees 
that  will  grow  from  sprouts  without  rapid  deterioration  of 
its  vitality.  It  throws  up  sprouts  from  adventitious  buds 
on  its  small  surface  roots,  and  hence  these  sprouts  do  not 
suffer  from  decay  of  their  roots,  as  they  would  if  growing 
from  decaying  stumps ;  but  if  permitted,  they  will  spring 
up  so  as  to  produce  dense  thickets  and  be  worthless.  With 


322  LOCUST 

the  exception  of  the  California  Redwood,  the  Beech,  and  the 
Chestnut,  the  Locust  is  the  only  valuable  species  that  can 
be  reasonably  depended  upon  to  reproduce  itself  by  sprouts. 
Other  trees,  like  Basswood,  Hickory,  Yellow  Poplar,  Cu- 
cumber, the  Oaks,  and  a  few  others,  occasionally  sprout  if 
the  tree  is  cut  when  young,  but  it  is  very  seldom  they  do 
to  any  satisfactory  extent. 

The  Locust  blooms  in  late  May  or  early  June,  according 
to  locality.  The  seeds  are  in  pods  — it  is  a  legume  —  and 
are  ripe  by  October,  and  can  be  gathered  and  sown  at  once 
or  kept  cool  and  planted  early  in  the  spring,  the  earlier 
the  better,  for  even  then  they  may  not  germinate  under 
two  years.  The  pods  will  hang  on  the  trees  until  late  win- 
ter. The  seeds  are  encased  in  a  hard  shell,  and  if  planting 
is  delayed  until  spring  they  should  be  placed  in  water 
nearly  boiling  hot.  Such  seeds  as  swell  during  the  opera- 
tion of  scalding  should  be  removed,  and  more  hot  water 
put  on  such  seeds  as  have  not  expanded,  until  all  have 
swollen,  when  they  should  be  promptly  planted,  for  their 
vitality  will  be  destroyed  if  they  then  become  at  all  dry. 
They  should  be  sown  in  the  seed-bed  in  rows  eight  inches 
apart  and  two  inches  apart  in  the  row,  if  only  swollen  seeds 
are  sown.  The  seedlings  can  ordinarily  be  transplanted  into 
the  forest  when  one  year  old,  for  they  may  then  have  at- 
tained a  height  of  eighteen  inches. 

Some  of  the  railroads  have  planted  Locust  for  ties,  spac- 
ing them  six,  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  feet  apart,  but  just  the 
right  distance  has  not  been  determined,  as  it  depends  largely 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  location.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  some  of  the  plantations  set  out  by  the  railroads 
are  not  as  promising  as  anticipated,  and  other  trees  are 
being  planted  in  their  stead.  This  comes,  no  doubt,  from 
causes  which  arise  from  the  tree's  idiosyncrasies.  Notwith- 
standing the  many  discouraging  things  which  must  be  re- 
lated of  this  tree,  it  has  some  remarkably  good  qualities 
and  should  be  cultivated  wherever  it  will  thrive,  but  only 
careful  observation  can  determine  that. 


HONEY   LOCUST :  Gleditsia  triacantlios 

Here  is  a  tree  whicli  so  much  resembles  the  common 
Locust  in  its  leaves,  fruit,  and  wood  that  there  should  be 
no  wonder  that  it  is  called  a  Locust,  yet,  botanieally  speak- 
ing, it  is  not  a  Locust.  The  prefix  "  honey"  to  the  common 
name  has,  no  doubt,  been  given  because  of  the  sweetness 
of  its  seed-pods.  However  incorrect  its  common  name  may 
be,  it  has  come  to  stay,  although  it  has  several  others  by 
which  it  is  known.  The  tree  may  be  readily  recognized  by 
the  prominent  thorns  or  spines  which  almost  invariably 
appear  on  the  stem  and  limbs.  These  are,  probably,  abor- 
tive developments  of  adventitious  buds,  sometimes  single, 
but  more  generally  three-forked,  hence  the  botanical  desig- 
nation triacantlios. 

As  indicated,  its  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  the  com- 
mon Locust,  and  all  efforts  to  ascertain  whether  there  is 
any  distinction  made  in  the  lumber  trade  have  failed.  There 
should  be  no  discrimination  made  against  the  Honey  Locust, 
for  its  wood  is  quite  equal  in  value  to  the  common  Locust 
for  all  purposes,  and  in  fact  superior  to  it  for  some. 

Like  the  common  Locust,  its  natural  range  was  somewhat 
restricted,  but  it  has  been  spread,  mainly  for  ornamental 
purposes,  over  a  much  larger  area  than  it  originally  occu- 
pied. Its  original  home  extended  from  central  New  York 
south  to  Georgia  and  from  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to 
eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  but  it  may  be  found  as  an 
ornamental  tree,  or  grown  for  hedges,  in  almost  every  state 
east  of  central  Kansas.  While  it  is  very  abundant  in  central 
Kentucky,  its  best  development  is  along  the  rich,  moist  river 
bottoms  of  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  thrives  best  in 
such  situations,  yet  does  fairly  well  in  any  moderately  fertile 
soil,  if  not  too  wet.  It  is  by  no  means  as  exacting  or  capri- 
cious in  regard  to  soil  or  location  as  the  common  Locust, 


324  HONEY  LOCUST 

and  it  is  equally  hardy.  If  the  soil  is  deep,  it  will  grow  on 
dry  ground,  and  the  indications  are  that  it  will  do  well  in 
the  Middle  West  where  the  rainfall  is  somewhat  restricted. 
It  is  light-demanding,  and  if  not  crowded  will  generally 
branch  out  low  down,  and  instead  of  throwing  up  a  single 
stem  there  will  be  several  of  them  struggling  for  supremacy. 
In  this  it  exhibits  the  same  objectionable  feature  as  the 
common  Locust.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  tend- 
ency in  planting  it  for  hedges  and  fences.  If  cut  back  to  near 
the  ground  when  young,  it  will  throw  up  numerous  branches, 
and  if  properly  handled  will  form  an  almost  impenetrable 
barrier,  which  is  made  more  formidable  by  its  thorns.  It 
does  not  sprout  from  the  roots  unless  they  are  wounded. 

Its  propensity  to  branch  can  be  easily  controlled.  Close 
planting  in  the  forest  will  cause  the  lower  limbs  to  die 
and  drop  off,  and  the  tree  will  then  throw  up  a  straight 
stem  clean  of  large  limbs.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  an  an- 
nual increase  in  height  of  two  feet  and  one  half  inch  in 
diameter  is  not  uncommon  in  favorable  locations,  for  a 
score  or  more  years,  and  in  less  favorable  ones  it  will 
generally  add  a  foot  or  more  in  height  and  increase  in  dia- 
meter fully  one  third  of  an  inch. 

The  wood  is  very  hard,  strong,  heavy,  coarse-grained, 
and  with  a  marked  difference  in  appearance  between  spring 
and  summer  wood.  The  heartwood  is  a  bright  red  brown, 
frequently  nearly  red  in  thrifty  trees,  with  thin  and  pale 
sapwood,  the  latter  seldom  over  fifteen  annual  rings  and 
frequently  not  over  ten.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous, 
but  small,  and  are  conspicuous  for  their  brilliancy,  and  if 
the  lumber  is  sawed  radially  they  add  much  to  its  beauty 
when  finished.  It  is  very  durable  when  exposed  to  the  soil, 
and  for  all  uses  where  great  durability  and  strength  are 
required,  it  has  few  superiors.  It  is  mainly  used  at  present 
for  fence  posts,  rails,  hubs  of  wheels,  and  general  construc- 
tion, but  must,  eventually,  be  grown  for  saw  timber  and  its 
use  extended. 

It  is  a  good  seeder  and  bears  quite  abundantly  after 


HONEY  LOCUST  325 

twenty-five  years  of  age,  sometimes  earlier.  The  seeds  are 
in  pods,  —  it  is  a  legume,  —  and  they  should  be  gathered 
in  the  fall  and  placed  where  they  can  dry  out,  when  the 
pods  can  be  readily  broken  and  the  seeds  will  fall  out.  The 
seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  or  stratified  in  moist  sand. 
Freezing  will  not  injure  them,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed 
to  become  very  dry.  If  kept  until  spring,  they  should  be 
placed  in  hot  water  and  kept  warm  until  the  seeds  swell, 
and  as  soon  as  that  occurs  they  must  be  planted,  for  any 
drying  or  delay  then  will  prove  fatal.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  renew  the  hot  water  several  times,  removing  all  that  have 
swollen  before  this  is  done.  They  can  be  planted  in  the 
seed-bed  in  rows  six  inches  apart  and  two  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  and  from  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch  deep. 
The  soil  should  be  kept  moist  until  the  plants  are  well 
established.  If  all  things  are  favorable,  the  seedlings  may 
reach  a  height  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  the  first  year.  They 
can  be  removed  from  the  seed-bed  when  one  or  two  years 
old,  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  ground  into  which 
they  are  to  be  placed.  Transplanting  in  the  nursery  is  not 
necessary,  although  it  would  strengthen  the  plants  and  aid 
them  in  overcoming  adverse  conditions  when  placed  in  the 
forest.  There  should  be  slight  loss  in  transplanting,  if  done 
with  reasonable  care.  Commercial  nurserymen  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  growing  this  tree  from  seed.  It  is  not  attacked  by 
borers,  and  so  far  as  known  has  no  fungus  disease,  nor  is 
it  attacked  by  any  insect. 

It  is  not  known  just  what  distance  the  trees  should  be 
placed  apart  in  the  forest.  This  must  be  governed  by  the 
character  of  the  soil — the  poorer  the  soil  the  closer  they 
should  be  set.  It  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  emi- 
nently light-demanding  and  should  be  placed  close  enough 
to  overcome  the  tendency  to  throw  out  limbs.  Probably 
from  four  to  six  feet  apart,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  soil,  would  be  about  right.  If  set  too  thick,  thinning 
will  remedy  it,  but  no  treatment  can  overcome  the  mistake 
of  planting  too  far  apart. 


CUCUMBER :  Magnolia  acuminata 

Notwithstanding  that  this  tree  has  several  names,  it  is 
best  known  by  the  one  here  given  —  this,  no  doubt,  because 
the  shape  and  color  of  its  fruit,  when  green,  somewhat  re- 
semble a  cucumber.  There  are  seven  species  of  Magnolias 
growing  naturally  in  the  United  States,  but  this  is  the  only 
one  producing  timber  of  any  commercial  value.  Its  natural 
range  is  not  very  extended.  It  is  largely  confined  to  the  Ap- 
palachian Mountains,  and  their  eastern  and  western  slopes, 
from  central  New  York  to  central  Georgia  and  Alabama, 
spreading  out,  however,  to  southern  Illinois,  and  into  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee.  It  has  never  been  found  abundant  in 
any  one  locality,  and  frequently  is  entirely  absent  from 
sections  surrounded  by  regions  where  it  is  to  be  found. 
This  is,  no  doubt,  because  the  percentage  of  fertility  of 
its  seeds  is  very  low  and  both  fruit  and  seeds  are  extremely 
bitter  and  obnoxious  to  the  taste  of  man  and  brutes ;  and,  as 
the  seeds  have  no  wings  to  enable  them  to  be  carried  by  the 
wind,  they  are  not  widely  scattered. 

Its  best  development  is  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  of 
eastern  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  and  in  West  Virginia.  It 
prefers  a  rich  and  rather  moist  soil,  but  thrives  well  in  the 
not  very  fertile  soils  of  the  carboniferous  formation  in  West 
Virginia  and  Pennsylvania.  When  grown  in  the  open,  its 
crown  forms  a  fine  pyramid,  with  limbs  from  near  the 
ground  up  to  a  sharp  apex ;  but  being  light-demanding  it 
will,  when  crowded,  produce  a  straight,  slightly  tapering, 
smooth  stem,  sometimes  fifty  or  more  feet  without  a  limb, 
and  with  a  diameter  of  three  and  one  half  to  four  feet,  and 
a  total  height  of  one  hundred  feet. 

The  wood  is  light,  soft,  brittle,  straight-  and  fine-grained, 
easily  worked,  and  does  not  warp  or  split  when  seasoning. 
The  heartwood  varies  in  color  from  a  light  yellow-brown  to 
a  dark  reddish  brown,  with  fi-ecuent  streaks  quite  like  pale 


CLTtr.MBER,   XKARLY   FIVE   FEET   IX  DIAMETER,    IX    VIR(.IX   FORESP 

Man  standing  near  it;  other  trees  are  luainly  Hemlock.    John  E.  DuBois  Estate, 

Elk  County,  rennsylvania. 

rhototjtaphed  by  Dr.  Hwjli  P.  Baker. 


CUCUMBER  327 

burnt  umber.  Occasionally  it  may  have  a  tinge  of  olive 
green.  The  sapwoocl  is  thin  and  of  a  yellowish  white.  There 
is  little  distinction  between  spring  and  summer  wood.  It  is 
used  for  furniture,  especially  for  bottoms  and  sides  of 
drawers,  interior  finish,  pump  stocks,  and  for  most  purposes 
for  which  White  Pine  can  be  used,  except  where  strength 
is  required;  and  it  is  more  durable  when  exposed.  It  takes 
glue,  paint,  and  stain  well,  but  shows  a  rather  dull  finish 
under  varnish.  It  is  rated  in  the  market  as  about  equal  to 
Yellow  Poplar  in  quality  and  value,  except  for  pump  stocks, 
for  which  it  is  preferred. 

It  is  not  a  frequent  seeder,  nor  is  it  a  prolific  one.  "When 
ripe,  the  fruit  is  a  brilliant  red,  and  generally  crooked  and 
distorted  in  shape.  The  seeds  are  a  bright  scarlet,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  fruit  by  a  white  thread  an  inch  or  more 
long.  They  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  stratified 
in  moist  sand  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  Freezing  will  not 
harm  them.  Seeds  should  be  sown  in  the  nursery  the 
same  as  those  of  Ash  or  Maple.  The  plants  grow  quite 
rapidly  after  the  first  year  and  may  be  transplanted  into 
the  forest  when  two  years  old,  although  it  would  be  best  to 
place  them  in  the  transplant  nursery  for  another  year.  The 
roots  are  brittle  and  few  fibrous  ones  are  developed,  which 
makes  transplanting  into  the  forest  difficult  and  uncertain. 
The  tree  grows  rapidly  when  young,  and  it  maintains  its 
vigor  quite  well  for  a  long  time.  The  value  of  the  wood  will 
justify  an  earnest  effort  to  propagate  it.  Scarcity  of  seed 
and  its  low  percentage  of  fertility  are  serious  hindrances 
to  its  propagation.  If  injury  occurs  to  a  tree  in  its  early 
life,  sprouts  will  be  thrown  up  from  the  stump,  but  these 
seldom  attain  a  size  large  enough  for  the  saw,  and  when  they 
do  they  are  generally  decayed  at  the  butt.  The  same  treat- 
ment should  be  accorded  it  in  the  nursery  and  in  transplant- 
ing it  into  the  forest  as  is  given  to  Yellow  Poplar,  White 
Ash,  and  Maple.  Probably  the  plants  would  best  be  planted 
about  six  feet  apart,  but  in  rich  soil  seven  feet  would  be 
advisable.  It  cannot  be  ascertained  that  any  experience  has 
been  had  in  planting  it  in  the  forest. 


SYCAMORE:  BUTTONWOOD  :  BUTTONBALL : 

Platanus  occidentalis 

This  tree  is  burdened  with  nine  names.  The  Indian 
name,  when  translated  into  English,  was  "  Big  Stockings." 
Those  most  commonly  applied  to  it  are  "Button wood  "  and 
"  Buttonball,"  and  these  were,  no  doubt,  chosen  from  the 
ball  form  of  its  fruit.  Platanus  is  the  classical  name  for 
the  Oriental  Plane  Tree,  now  known  to  botanists  as  P.  ori- 
entalise which  is  largely  planted  for  ornament  in  Europe, 
and  has  lately  been  introduced  into  this  country. 

No  one  who  has  taken  a  good  look  at  this  tree  will  fail 
to  recognize  it  afterwards,  although  few  trees  so  change 
their  general  outline  and  form  of  crown  when  passing  from 
youth  to  old  age.  From  early  to  nearly  middle  life,  it  sends 
up  a  straight  stem  with  straight  limbs  slanting  upward  and 
forming,  when  in  the  open,  a  formal  and  regular  pyramid 
from  near  the  ground  to  a  pointed  apex  at  the  top.  When 
it  is  approaching  its  height  growth,  whether  growing  in 
the  open  or  in  a  crowd,  limbs  that  were  once  straight  and 
regular  begin  to  droop  and  straggle  and  assume  irregular 
shapes,  with  bends  and  crooks,  and  the  crown  is  wholly  un- 
like that  in  early  life.  When  grown  crowded,  it  shoots  up 
a  tall,  straight  stem  free  from  limbs  for  two  thirds  of  its 
height.  Groves  of  young  trees  may  be  frequently  seen, 
where  the  stand  is  crowded,  that  have  the  appearance  of 
a  mass  of  painted  poles  with  a  few  stag-horn  branches  at 
the  top.  Being  very  intolerant  of  shade,  it  seeks  to  obtain 
light  and  outstrip  its  competitors. 

It  has  another  peculiarity,  wherein  it  differs  from  most 
trees.  Like  all  others  it  annually  forms  a  layer  of  live  bark 
next  to  the  cambium,  and  as  regularly  an  annual  layer  dies 
on  the  outside  of  the  live  bark ;  but  instead  of  being  elastic, 
or  accommodating  itself  to  the  increasing  size  of  the  tree, 


SYCAMORE  329 

the  dying  layer  —  except  at  and  near  the  base  of  mature 
trees  —  annually  scales  off,  leaving  the  live  bark  without 
such  protection  as  is  afforded  by  the  dead  bark  of  most  trees. 
This  dying  layer  is  at  first  white,  but  as  the  season  advances 
it  generally  turns  to  an  olive-gray,  and  when  it  falls  off  in 
patches,  as  it  usually  does  in  winter-time,  it  causes  the  tree 
to  look  as  though  liberally  splashed  with  whitewash.  As 
the  tree  approaches  maturity,  the  dead  bark  adheres  to  the 
stem  from  the  ground  upwards  for  some  distance  and  forms 
scales  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the  White  Ash.  The 
adhering  dead  bark  is  of  a  gray  color,  making  the  tree  show 
a  darkened  base  surmounted  by  a  mottled  or  whitewashed 
stem  and  branches. 

There  is  still  another  peculiarity  in  which  it  is  almost 
entirely  alone.  While  buds  are  regularly  formed,  in  late 
summer,  for  a  succeeding  year's  growth,  none  are  visible 
until  the  leaf  stem  separates  from  the  branch.  The  base 
of  the  leaf  stem  —  the  petiole  —  entirely  covers  the  bud 
formed  for  the  next  season  with  a  cover  much  resembling 
the  old-fashioned  conical  candle  extinguisher. 

It  has  an  extended  range,  reaching  from  Maine  and 
southern  Michigan  to  northern  Florida  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  eastern  Texas, 
Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  (There  is  a  species  in 
California,  but  it  is  of  little  economic  value  for  timber.)  It 
flourishes  best  along  streams  and  in  moist  fertile  soil,  where 
it  grows  quite  rapidly  in  early  life  and  keeps  up  a  fairly 
thrifty  condition  for  a  long  time,  reaching  an  old  age.  It 
will  grow  in  somewhat  dry  soil,  but  seldom  attains  its  larg- 
est size  there.  Its  best  development  is  along  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers  and  their  tributaries,  especially  the  Wa- 
bash and  Miami,  where  it  has  been  found  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  high,  with  a  dia- 
meter of  ten  to  eleven  feet,  with  a  tall,  straight,  and  clean 
stem,  lessening  but  little  in  diameter  as  it  nears  the  crown. 
JVIany  large  trees  once  existed  along  the  Susquehanna  and 
Delaware  rivers.  Old  trees  are  liable  to  be  hollow.  Pro- 


330  SYCAMORE 

fessor  C.  S.  Sargent  ^  declares  it  to  be  "  the  most  massive 
if  not  the  tallest  deciduous-leaved  tree  of  North  America." 

The  heartwood  is  yellowish  brown,  with  thin  and  light- 
colored  sapwood.  It  is  of  medium  weight,  close-grained, 
rather  tough,  very  difficult  to  split,  and  with  very  numer- 
ous, small,  but  decidedly  distinct  and  conspicuous  medul- 
lary rays.  None  of  our  timber  trees  surpass  it  in  this  respect, 
and  when  quarter-sawed  it  is  susceptible  of  a  very  beauti- 
ful finish,  and  hence  it  is,  latterly,  being  used  for  cabinet 
and  interior  work.  Until  within  the  last  score  of  years  it 
was  used  almost  exclusively  for  butcher's  blocks  and  plug- 
tobacco  boxes.  It  is  difficult  to  season  because  of  its  tend- 
ency to  warp,  and  it  decays  quickly  when  exposed. 

It  is  an  early  and  prolific  seed-bearer.  Its  well-known 
ball-shaped  fruit  hangs  on  nearly  all  winter,  disintegrating 
in  the  spring,  the  winds  scattering  the  seeds  far  and  wide. 
Falling  in  the  running  streams,  they  lodge  along  the  bor- 
ders, in  the  sand  and  gravel  banks  and  exposed  bars,  and 
large  numbers  of  plants  spring  up,  but  they  are  mostly  de- 
stroyed by  the  freshets  of  the  succeeding  spring.  These 
young  seedlings  frequently  attain  a  height  of  eight  to  twelve 
inches  by  fall,  and  may  be  secured  and  planted  at  once  or 
heeled-in  until  spring.  Spring  gathering  would  be  better, 
but  there  is  danger  of  their  destruction  by  freshets  if  left 
until  then.  The  young  plants  are  well  supplied  with  fibrous 
roots  and  their  removal  and  subsequent  treatment  are  not 
at  all  difficult,  if  set  in  proper  ground.  The  tree  can  be 
grown  from  cuttings.  These  should  be  gathered  in  the  fall 
and  cut  about  twelve  inches  long  from  the  current  year's 
growth.  They  should  be  heeled-in  in  a  moist  place  and  pro- 
tected from  frost.  In  such  a  situation  they  will  callus  by 
spring  and  growth  will  generally  occur.  The  callused  cut- 
tings should  be  planted  where  the  trees  are  to  grow,  as 
plants  from  cuttings  do  not  generally  bear  transplanting. 

If  the  plants  cannot  be  obtained,  the  seed  can  be  gath- 
ered in  the  fall  or  winter,  separated  by  crushing  the  ball, 
^  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America,  page  345. 


SYCAMORE  331 

and  sown  in  early  spring  in  moist,  rich  ground  and  treated 
as  are  other  broadleaf  species.  They  grow  quite  rapidly  in 
early  life,  and  need  not  remain  in  the  nursery  beds  more 
than  two  years.  As  the  tree  naturally  grows  in  ground 
unfit  for  cultivation,  because  of  overflow,  its  propagation 
should  be  encouraged  there.  If  this  is  undertaken,  the  tree 
should  not  be  allowed  to  throw  up  several  stems  from  the 
same  root,  a  thing  which  it  is  liable  to  do. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  attacked  by  what  appears  to 
be  a  fungus  disease.  Soon  after  the  leaves  appear  in  the 
spring  they  begin  to  shrivel  and  curl,  turn  brown,  and  die. 
New  ones  generally  put  out,  but  the  tree  is  checked  in 
growth  and  frequently  does  not  readily  recover,  and  seldom 
if  attacked  the  next  year.  It  is  denied  that  this  is  a  fungus 
disease  or  an  attack  of  insects,  but  it  is  alleged  to  be  the 
result  of  climatic  or  meteorological  conditions.  This  may 
be  so,  for  all  the  trees  may  be  attacked  in  a  section  of  the 
country  one  year  and  not  the  next. 


THE  COTTONWOODS:   POPLARS 

Technically  speaking  we  have  no  Cottonwoods,  but 
there  are  nine  species  of  trees  indigenous  to  the  United 
States  that  are  generally  known  as  Cottonwoods ;  yet 
botanically  they,  together  with  two  others,  are  Poplars,  and 
to  persist  in  calling  these  nine  species  Poplars  would  lead 
to  confusion  in  the  minds  of  those  not  familiar  with  botan- 
ical nomenclature.  The  two  species  of  Poplars  not  classed 
as  Cottonwoods  are  commonly  called  Aspens.  They  are 
Trembling  Aspen  (^Populus  tremuloides)  and  Largetooth 
Aspen  (^Populus  grandideiitata).  It  is  seldom  that  either 
of  these  grows  large  enough  in  the  United  States  to  be  of 
value  for  saw  timber,  and  at  best  they  are  worth  but  little 
for  that,  yet  they  are  considered  the  most  valuable  of  any  of 
our  woods  for  paper  pulp.  It  is  only  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern portion  of  our  country  that  they  attain  a  size  to  make 
artificial  cultivation  a  profitable  undertaking.  They  repro- 
duce themselves  abundantly  whenever  offered  an  opportun- 
ity, even  to  the  extent  of  becoming  a  nuisance  by  crowding 
out  more  valuable  species  ;  hence  they  will  not  be  further 
considered  here. 

There  is  one  feature  common  to  all  the  Poplars  and  Cot- 
tonwoods. The  stem  of  the  leaf  —  botanically,  the  petiole 
—  is  flat  and  its  face  is  at  right  angles  with  the  face  of  the 
leaf,  and  this  permits  a  slight  wind  to  cause  the  leaf  to  vi- 
brate, hence  "  Trembling  Aspen."  Three  species  of  Cotton- 
woods are,  to  some  extent,  manufactured  into  lumber,  but 
as  there  is  little  difference  in  them  a  consideration  of  one 
will  substantially  cover  all,  notation  being  made  where  they 
differ.  These  are  known  as  Swamp  Cottonwood  {Populus 
heteropTiylla)^  Balm  of  Gilead  (^Populus  halsamifera),  and 
Cottonwood  {Popuhis  deltoid es^.  The  last  species  is  best 
known  and  most  important.  For  a  long  time  it  was  known 


THE  COTTONWOODS  333 

as  Cottonwood,  but  latterly  it  has  been  called  Carolina 
Poplar,  a  name  given  to  it,  no  doubt,  by  some  enterprising 
nurseryman  to  disarm  a  prejudice  generally  felt  towards 
the  Cottonwoods,  and  it  has  been  palmed  off  on  an  unsus- 
pecting public  as  a  newly  discovered  species  of  Poplar,  and 
one  well  adapted  to  ornamental  purposes  —  for  which  it  has 
only  one  redeeming  feature,  that  of  rapid  growth.  It  should 
have  no  place  on  the  lawn  or  street.  In  some  sections  it  is 
known  as  Necklace  Poplar,  and  there  is  no  more  reason 
for  calling  it  Carolina  Poplar  than  there  is  for  designating 
it  Virginia  Poplar,  or  affixing  the  name  of  any  other  state, 
for  some  variety  of  it  grows  in  nearly  every  state  east  of  the 
{Continental  Divide.  Strictly  speaking,  it  should  not  be 
placed  in  the  class  of  important  timber  trees,  for,  except  as 
will  be  noted,  it  is  of  little  value  for  lumber  alone  ;  yet  there 
are  some  uses  to  which  it  can  be  profitably  put,  whereby  it 
may  play  an  important  part  in  forest  economy.  It  is  a  first- 
class  wood  for  paper  pulp,  and  by  its  rapid  growth  it  may 
be  made  to  bring  quicker  returns  than  any  other  native 
forest  tree.  It  can  also  be  made  useful  in  protecting  stream 
banks  from  erosion,  as  it  will  thrive  on  ground  too  wet  for 
trees  that  will  produce  more  valuable  lumber  and  which  is 
too  wet  to  cultivate.  It  is  readily  reproduced  by  sprouts 
from  cut  stumps  and  roots,  and  can  also  be  propagated  by 
cuttings  set  in  the  ground  where  the  trees  are  to  stand. 
These  features  certainly  warrant  placing  it  in  the  list  of 
trees  worthy  of  cultivation. 

It  must  not  be  said,  however,  that  it  is  invariably  of  lit- 
tle value  for  lumber,  for  along  the  valleys  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Missouri  rivers  the  character  of  the  wood  is  quite 
different  from  that  grown  elsewhere,  and  it  is  there  known 
as  Yellow  Cottonwood.  Lumber  cut  from  trees  grown  there 
is  reported  easy  to  work,  can  be  dressed  smooth,  serves  a 
fair  purpose  for  work  that  is  not  exposed,  will  take  on  a 
good  finish,  and  is  adapted  to  many  purposes  for  which 
Yellow  Poplar  is  used.  As  there  appears  to  be  no  marked 
botanical  difference  in  the  trees  there  and  elsewhere,  the 


334  THE  COTTONWOODS 

difference  in  character  of  the  wood  is,  no  doubt,  caused  by- 
difference  in  soil,  moisture,  or  climatic  condition,  or  all  of 
these  —  features  which  affect  all  species  of  trees. 

Its  best  development  is  in  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  i-ivers  and  their  eastern  tributaries,  where 
it  may  be  seen  with  a  stem  one  hundred  feet  high  and  from 
six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter.  East  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  it  is  less  vigorous,  smaller  in  size,  and  shorter- 
lived,  although  trees  eighty  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter 
of  quite  three  feet,  are  not  at  all  uncommon.  It  grows  most 
rapidly  in  early  life  and  soon  becomes  a  tree  large  enough 
for  commercial  purposes.  Its  most  vigorous  growth  is  in 
moist  soils  along  low-bank  streams,  at  the  moist  bases  of 
hills  and  mountains,  and  on  the  borders  of  swamps  ;  ground 
can  be  too  wet  for  it,  however.  It  will  grow  quite  readily 
on  poor,  dry  soils,  if  not  very  dry,  but  it  there  shows  symp- 
toms of  failure  quite  early  in  life.  It  does  not  grow  vig- 
orously on  sandy  plains  or  on  dry  mountain-tops  or  on  their 
sterile  and  dry  sides.  Ground  rather  wet  for  cultivation  is 
well  adapted  to  it.  In  situations  at  all  suited,  it  is  a  very 
rapid  grower,  and  not  much  given  to  developing  large 
limbs,  wherein  it  widely  differs  from  its  half-brother  the 
Balm  of  Gilead,  a  species  which  should  not  be  mistaken 
for  it.  It  is  light-demanding  and  any  crowding  by  other 
trees  will  kill  off  its  lower  branches.  In  fact,  they  will  die 
in  a  few  years  from  its  own  shade,  even  when  grown  in  the 
open.  Its  natural  habit  is  to  send  up  a  tall,  straight  stem 
with  a  moderate  amount  of  small  limbs.  But  few  of  our 
native  broadleaf  trees  will  grow  as  tall  in  the  open.  It  is 
shallow  rooted,  even  when  growing  on  moderately  rich  and 
moist  soil. 

The  wood  is  soft,  weak,  and  with  somewhat  contorted 
fibre.  It  is  coarse-grained,  difficult  to  season,  with  a  strong 
tendency  to  warp,  and  shrinks  greatly  when  drying.  The 
heartwood  is  dark  brown,  with  a  very  thick  and  nearly 
white  sapwood.  There  is  little  difference  between  spring 
and  summer  wood.  It  is  used  for  rough  lumber,  such  as 


THE  COTTONWOODS  335 

sheathing  where  it  is  protected,  for  box  boards,  cheap  ve- 
neers, fruit  and  vegetable  crates,  and  the  "  Yellow  Cotton- 
wood "  for  flooring  and  cheap  interior  finish.  It  is  seriously 
affected  by  atmospheric  changes,  where  not  protected  by 
paint  or  varnish,  as  it  readily  imbibes  moisture.  It  is  being 
planted  in  some  sections  for  pulp  wood,  for  which  it  is  ad- 
mirably adapted.  It  is  claimed  that,  when  growing  on  soil 
adapted  to  it,  it  can  be  relied  on  to  yield  from  three  to  five 
cords  of  pulp  wood  per  acre  per  annum,  in  from  seven  to 
ten  years  after  planting.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a  tree  to 
grow  to  a  height  of  forty-five  or  fifty  feet,  with  a  diameter 
of  twelve  inches  in  ten  years. 

Propagation  is  best  effected  by  inserting  cuttings  in  the 
ground  where  the  trees  are  to  stand.  This  is  preferable  to 
sowing  seeds,  for  the  reason  that  the  cuttings  can  be  taken 
from  trees  bearing  staminate  flowers,  thus  avoiding  the 
nuisance  of  the  cottony  floats  which  fill  the  air  from  trees 
that  bear  the  pistillate  flowers ;  although  it  is  claimed  that 
trees  grown  from  seed  are  longer-lived  than  when  propagated 
from  cuttings.  This  is  quite  likely  the  case,  but  if  the  trees 
are  to  be  cut  for  pulp  wood  a  long  life  is  not  essential.  Its 
habit  of  throwing  out  sprouts  from  its  roots  is  very  general, 
although  there  appear  to  be  two  varieties  and  one  is  more 
given  to  this  than  the  other.  Any  mutilation  of  the  roots 
will  cause  either  variety  to  sprout.  In  case  a  sprout  does 
not  come  up  where  a  tree  is  wanted,  — but  they  are  generally 
numerous  enough,  —  a  spade  can  be  used  to  cut  off  the 
roots  where  it  is  desirable  for  a  tree  to  grow.  The  sprouts 
will  at  first  grow  much  faster  than  the  cuttings,  as  the  es- 
tablished root  system  gives  vigor  to  the  sprout.  A  sprout 
has  been  known  to  grow  nine  feet  in  height  the  first  year 
and  a  cutting  seven  feet. 

In  propagating  from  cuttings  it  is  best  to  secure  strong, 
healthy  shoots  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  such  as  are 
entirely  free  from  branches,  looking  well  to  see  that  the 
buds  are  well  developed.  The  cuttings  may  be  from  three 
fourths  down  to  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 


336  THE  COTTONWOODS 

should  be  cut  on  a  warm  day  in  the  last  of  February  or  the 
first  of  March.  Early  cutting  is  essential,  for  if  the  buds 
have  swelled  or  the  leaves  have  started  to  grow,  failure  is 
almost  certain  to  result.  Cut  the  shoots  into  lengths  of  eight 
to  ten  inches,  with  a  bud  near  the  top  end.  That  end  may 
be  cut  off  square,  but  the  other  should  be  cut  slanting,  so  as 
to  give  as  much  length  as  possible  for  "  callus  "  to  develop, 
for  it  is  from  this  that  the  roots  largely  spring.  Place 
the  cuttings,  butts  downward,  in  moist  ground  in  a  cool 
cellar,  or,  better,  out  of  doors,  with  the  butts  well  covered 
with  earth.  Freezing  will  not  hurt  them.  This  is  practically 
"heeling  them  in,"  and  they  should  remain  there  until 
about  the  time  the  leaves  of  the  trees  in  the  vicinity  begin 
to  grow.  Then  take  a  pick  and  make  a  slanting  hole  in  the 
ground  whei'e  the  tree  is  to  stand  — this  hole  should  be  at 
an  angle  of  about  twenty  or  thirty  degrees  from  the  hor- 
izontal —  and  insert  the  cutting  up  to  the  bud,  leaving  the 
latter  just  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Stamp  the 
earth  down  on  the  cutting  and  the  operation  is  completed. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  earth  be  packed  down 
close  on  the  cutting  and  that  it  and  the  earth  should  be  in 
close  contact.  Nearly  every  one  will  grow  if  these  instruc- 
tions are  followed,  providing,  however,  that  there  is  not  a 
growth  of  weeds,  grass,  or  shrubs  to  shade  and  suppress 
them.  The  author  knows  of  a  case  where  cuttings  were 
planted  in  ground  on  which  goldenrod  grew  very  dense 
to  a  height  of  nearly  four  feet,  and  right  alongside  were 
cuttings  placed  in  ground  where  there  were  no  weeds  to 
shade.  The  latter  all  lived  and  flourished ;  some  grew  four 
feet  high  the  first  year ;  while  in  the  other  ground,  all 
started  to  grow,  but  nearly  all  were  dead  by  fall. 

It  is  impossible  to  indicate  the  distance  apart  that  the 
trees  should  be  planted.  That  depends  largely  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  If  the  ground  is  rich  and  moist,  they 
may  be  placed  from  six  to  eight  feet  apart ;  if  poor  and  dry, 
five  or  six  feet  apart  will  be  best.  It  has  been  shown  by 
experience  that  twelve  feet  is  too  great  a  distance  on  dry 


THE  COTTONWOODS  337 

ground.  It  will  be  better  to  plant  close,  for  it  will  be  easy 
to  relieve  by  thinning.  In  harvesting,  it  will  be  best  to  take 
out  the  largest  trees  first  and  leave  some  to  stand  for  a 
year  or  two  to  protect  the  forest  floor  and  act  as  "  nurses  " 
to  the  young  shoots. 

The  persistency  of  the  tree  in  throwing  up  shoots  should 
prevent  planting  on  lands  where  it  is  proposed  to  cultivate 
or  on  lawns  or  in  streets,  and  the  tendency  of  its  roots  to 
search  for  water  should  prevent  planting  near  drains  and 
sewers,  for  they  will  surely  fill  them  with  fibrous  roots 
should  there  be  an  opening  in  them  through  which  a  tiny 
root  can  enter.  The  tree  is  sometimes  attacked  by  borers 
and  by  oyster-shell  scale  —  the  former  being  the  most  for- 
midable. 

Swamp  Cottonwood  differs  little  from  that  just  de- 
scribed. It  is  a  smaller  tree  and  in  some  sections  the  wood 
is  better  than  that  of  either  of  the  others.  Its  natural  hab- 
itat is  in  the  swamps,  and  if  permitted  would  undoubtedly 
reproduce  itself  as  far  as  could  be  desired. 

Balm  of  Qilead  is  useful  for  pulp,  but  the  Carolina  Pop- 
lar is  a  much  better  tree.  Its  tendency  is  to  branch  out 
low  down  and  develop  an  open,  straggling  crown,  with 
specialized  limbs,  and  the  wood  is  so  weak  that  it  is  fre- 
quently destroyed  or  badly  broken  by  winds.  It  is  seldom 
sawed  into  lumber.  It  warps  badly  in  drying.  Its  cultiva- 
tion as  a  forest  tree  cannot  be  recommended,  and  its  habit 
of  throwing  up  sprouts  should  prohibit  its  cultivation  where 
they  will  interfere  with  cultivation  of  the  ground  or  with 
any  other  use  of  it. 


THE  GUMS 

There  are  three  species  of  trees  classed  as  "  Gums," 
which  have  a  commercial  value  for  lumber.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  three  is  commonly  known  as  Red  Gum,  but 
it  is  not  a  Gum  nor  does  it  belong  to  the  genus.  There  is 
nothing  in  common  with  this  and  the  true  Gums  in  either 
flowers,  fruit,  shape  of  leaves,  or  quality  of  wood.  Its  coi*- 
rect  name  is  Liquidambar  —  botanically  Liquidambar 
styraciflua.  It  is  best,  however,  to  treat  it  as  a  Gum  to 
avoid  confusion,  for  the  lumber  trade  has  adopted  that 
name  and  by  that  it  is  commonly  known. 

Not  until  recent  years  was  any  one  of  the  trees  known 
as  Gum  esteemed  of  any  value  for  merchantable  lumber. 
Wood  cut  from  the  true  Gums  was  soft,  but  not  easily 
worked  because  of  the  interlacing  of  its  fibres,  and,  what 
was  more,  that  cut  from  all  species  would  warp  badly  in 
seasoning.  But  the  increasing  scarcity  of  more  valuable 
woods  compelled  consideration  of  the  question  whether 
such  wood  could  not  be  made  useful.  Experiments  in  man- 
ufacture and  treatment  followed,  and  it  was  discovered 
that,  with  proper  handling,  lumber  cut  from  all  three 
species  could  be  made  quite  serviceable  for  many  purposes, 
decidedly  so  for  some ;  and  now,  instead  of  allowing  these 
trees  to  stand  in  the  swamps  or  occupy  ground  suitable  for 
agriculture,  or  to  be  girdled  and  allowed  to  decay  and  then 
burned,  — as  has  been  frequently  done  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States,  —  a  large  amount  of  lumber  has  been  and 
is  still  being  cut  from  them. 

The  uses  to  which  this  lumber  has  been  put  are  many, 
all  legitimate  enough  if  deception  is  not  practiced  ;  but  to 
ship  it  abroad  as  "  Satin  Walnut  "  —  for  by  that  name  is 
Red  Gum  known  in  England,  where  large  quantities  of  it 
are  consumed  for  interior  finish,  furniture,  and  the  like  — 


BLACK  GUM  339 

is  not  the  right  thing  to  do  ;  nor  is  there  any  justification  in 
calling,  here  at  home  or  elsewhere,  any  of  the  Gums 
"  Satin  Walnut,"  "  Circassian  Walnut,"  "  Bay  Poplar," 
"  Hazel  Pine,"  or  "  Nyssa,"  for  that  is  a  deception.  It  is 
true  that  "  Nyssa  "  is  the  botanical  name  for  all  the  true 
Gums,  but  the  average  purchaser  is  not  likely  to  know  that 
fact,  and  the  dealer  practically  lies  to  him  with  a  truth 
when  he  sells  him  Gum  under  that  name.  He  might  as 
well  sell  Water  Oak  as  "  Quercus."  If  properly  manufac- 
tured and  treated,  all  the  Gums  have,  for  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  adapted,  merit  enough  to  be  known  and  sold 
under  their  true  names.  The  three  important  species  are 
Black  Gum  (^Nyssa  sylvatica^  sometimes  called  Sour  Gum 
and  Pepperidge),  Tupelo  Gum  (^Nyssa  aquatica,  frequently 
called  Cotton  Gum),  and  Red  Gum  QLiquidambar  styraci- 
jlua^  in  some  states  called  Sweet  Gum). 

Black  Gum  :  Nyssa  syhatica 

There  is  great  lack  of  uniformity  in  names  given  to 
this  tree.  It  is  known  as  Black  Gum  in  fifteen  states,  as 
Sour  Gum  in  fourteen,  as  Tupelo  in  eleven,  and  Pepper- 
idge in  ten.  It  has  the  greatest  range  of  any  of  the  species. 
A  line  drawn  from  the  coast  of  southern  Maine  to  southern 
Iowa,  from  there  to  southern  Texas,  and  from  there  along 
the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts,  and  again  to  Maine  will  in- 
close an  area  in  which  it  may  be  found,  but  not  uniformly 
so.  It  may  be  occasionally  seen  one  hundred  feet  in  height, 
with  a  diameter  of  four  and  sometimes  five  feet,  but  these 
dimensions  are  far  above  the  average,  as  it  is  by  no  means 
uniform  in  growth.  It  has  many  slender  limbs  which  are 
frequently  drooping,  but  if  growing  in  a  dense  stand  it  will 
show  a  fairly  good  stem  free  from  limbs.  In  some  sections  it 
grows  along  the  borders  of  swamps  and  flourishes  in  wet  and 
poorly  drained  soils,  but  it  is  often  found  on  high  mountain 
slopes.  Its  best  development  is  along  the  base  of  the  south- 
ern Appalachian  Mountains. 


340  THE  GUMS 

The  wood  is  heavy,  soft,  strong,  very  tough,  decays 
quickly  when  exposed,  is  difficult  to  season ;  fibres  fine,  but 
much  interlaced,  and  hence  hard  to  split;  heartwood  light 
brownish  yellow,  with  sapwood  lighter-colored,  but  very 
thick,  showing  seventy-five  or  eighty  annual  rings.  It  is 
used  for  wheelhubs,  rollers  for  wire  ropes,  ox-yokes,  crates 
for  fruit  aud  other  like  commodities  that  can  be  shipped 
in  boxes  of  thin  material,  cut  into  veneers  for  packing  up 
seats  and  panels,  and  also  for  wrapping  packages  where 
they  can  be  rolled  up,  its  interlaced  fibre  preventing  split- 
ting when  thus  used. 

As  other  and  more  valuable  species  can  generally  be 
grown  where  this  flourishes,  it  is  manifestly  better  to  culti- 
vate them  than  to  endeavor  to  propagate  this  species  be- 
yond what  natural  reproduction  will  bring  about.  A  little 
care  in  that  direction  will  provide  all  that  is  needed,  for  it 
is  mainly  used  for  want  of  better  species. 

Tupelo  Gum  :  JV^yssa  aquatica 

Fortunately  this  tree  is  not  loaded  down  with  many 
names.  In  addition  to  Tupelo,  it  is  sometimes  called  Sour 
Gum  and  Cotton  Gum.  Its  botanical  name  indicates  its 
aquatic  character,  which  is  very  pronounced.  It  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  the  genuine  Gums.  Its  range 
is  along  the  coast  region  from  southern  Virginia  to  northern 
Florida,  through  the  Gulf  States  to  Texas,  and  then  up 
the  Mississippi  Valley  to  Missouri.  It  is  essentially  a  swamp 
tree,  growing  in  many  places  where  the  ground  is  inun- 
dated for  a  large  part  of  the  year.  It  is  a  frequent  com- 
panion of  the  Bald  Cypress,  and  like  that  tree  has  a  greatly 
enlarged,  tapering,  and  generally  hollow  base.  In  large 
trees  this  base  may  reach  seven  or  eight  feet  across  at  the 
ground.  It  is  a  large,  stately  tree,  frequently  growing  to  a 
height  of  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  four  or  five 
feet  next  above  the  enlarged  base.  Its  branches  are  com- 
paratively small,  having  few  or  no  specialized  limbs,  and 


RED  GUM  341 

when  grown  in  a  fairly  dense  stand  it  produces  a  stem  free 
from  limbs  fully  one  half  its  total  height. 

The  wood  is  light,  moderately  strong,  soft,  close-grained, 
not  durable,  fibres  much  interlaced  aud  hence  difficult  to 
split.  It  takes  glue,  stain,  paint,  and  varnish  well.  The 
heartwood  is  light  brown,  often  nearly  white,  with  thick, 
lighter-colored  sapwood,  which  may  frequently  be  seen 
composed  of  one  hundred  annual  layers.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  woodenware,  shipping-boxes  for  fruit  and 
vegetables,  handles  where  great  strength  is  not  required, 
veneers,  net  floats  in  place  of  cork,  and  furnishes  more  or 
less  of  the  "  Circassian  Walnut  "  and  "  Bay  Poplar."  It  is 
difficult  to  season,  but  modern  methods  have  largely  over- 
come that.  When  used  where  exposed  to  moisture,  the  back 
should  be  coated  with  paint  or  shellac  to  prevent  warping. 

Whether  it  will  thrive  outside  of  swamps,  or,  if  so, 
whether  it  will  be  a  profitable  tree  to  grow  beyond  natural 
reproduction,  is  open  to  grave  doubts.  If  confined  to  swamps, 
natural  reproduction  must  be  depended  upon ;  and  if  it 
will  grow  elsewhere  other  and  more  valuable  trees  should 
take  its  place. 

Red  Gum:  Liquidamhar  styraciflua 

The  correct  name  for  this  tree  is  Liquidambar,  but  it  is 
generally  called  Red  Gum,  and  sometimes  Sweet  Gum.  It 
has  a  wide  range.  A  line  drawn  from  Connecticut  to  Mis- 
souri and  thence  to  Texas  and  the  Gulf  will  give  the  bound- 
ary line  on  the  inland  side,  and  one  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  Connecticut  on  the  other,  but 
it  is  not  common  north  of  Maryland.  Its  commercial  range 
is  mainly  confined  to  the  moist  lands  of  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi basins  and  of  the  southern  and  southeastern  coast. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  one  of  the  largest  trees 
that  occupy  the  hardwood  bottom  lands  of  the  South. 
Even  occasional  overflowing  does  not  seem  to  affect  it 
seriously.  However,  it   will   grow  on  comparatively  dry 


342  THE  GUMS 

ground,  but  does  not  reach  so  large  a  size  there.  It  prefers 
a  deep,  rich  soil.  Its  companions  are  Oak,  Elm,  Mocker- 
nut  and  Shagbark  Hickories,  White  Ash,  and  occasionally 
Black  Walnut. 

When  young  and  growing  in  the  open,  it  forms  a  reg- 
ular conical  crown,  quite  like  a  conifer,  and  is  frequently 
grown  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  is  emphatically  light- 
demanding,  and  in  this  respect  is  as  exacting  as  any  other 
broad  leaf  tree.  When  grown  in  a  stand,  even  moderately 
dense,  it  will  send  up  a  straight  stem  free  from  limbs  to  an 
unusual  height  for  a  broadleaf  tree.  There  have  been  found 
trees  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  with  a  diameter  of 
five  feet,  but  this  is  far  above  the  average,  as  the  tree 
varies  much  in  size  and  vigor  according  to  soil  and  locality. 
It  has  a  peculiarity  not  common  to  other  species.  When  it 
attains  its  height  growth,  its  stem  is  much  given  to  separat- 
ing into  two  branches,  and  it  then  throws  out  a  spreading 
crown.  This  forking  appears  to  be  quite  general,  no  matter 
in  what  locality  the  tree  may  be  found. 

The  wood  is  heavy,  moderately  hard,  close-grained,  stiff, 
fairly  straight-grained,  not  strong,  and  easily  worked.  The 
heartwood  is  bright  brown,  tinged  with  red,  with  thin  and 
nearly  white  sapwood.  It  is  claimed  that  the  heartwood  is 
as  durable  as  Red  Oak.  Its  general  use  is  for  outside  and 
interior  finish  for  houses,  for  furniture,  mouldings,  handles, 
fruit  and  vegetable  crates,  veneers,  and  many  other  like 
purposes,  and,  like  Tupelo,  supplies  "Circassian  Walnut." 
It  takes  glue,  stain,  and  paint  well,  and,  when  properly 
"  filled  "  and  varnished  without  stain,  gives  a  satiny  and 
transparent  finish.  When  quarter-sawed  its  beauty  is  mani- 
festly enhanced.  While  shrinking  and  warping  badly  when 
not  properly  handled,  modern  methods  of  seasoning  have 
nearly  if  not  quite  overcome  these  defects.  It  should  be 
known  that,  while  the  wood  is  only  moderately  heavy  when 
dry,  green  logs  will  sink.  This  can  be  overcome  by  cut- 
ting them  when  the  sap  is  down  and  letting  them  season 
for  a  few  mouths. 


SOUTHERN   HARDWOOD  FOREST,   MAINLY  RED   GUM 
Copyrighted  by  Clark  L.  Poole  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


RED  GUM  343 

There  do  not  seem  to  be  any  reasonable  grounds  for 
attempting  artificial  reforestation.  The  tree  has  a  pro- 
nounced tap-root  when  not  growing  in  wet  ground.  This 
will  prevent  growing  trees  profitably  in  a  nursery  and 
transplanting  into  the  forest.  It  is  a  frequent  and  prolific 
seeder,  but  the  seedlings  are  so  intolerant  of  shade  that 
natural  regeneration  takes  place  slowly,  and  indications  are 
that  land  must  be  thoroughly  cleared  to  have  that  occur 
satisfactorily.  In  fact,  natural  regeneration  fails  except 
along  the  borders  of  open  fields.  Add  to  this  the  further 
fact  that  much  of  the  land  on  which  it  grows  can  be  ren- 
dered suitable  for  agriculture,  and,  if  not,  will  grow  more 
valuable  trees,  like  Black  Walnut,  White  Ash,  and  Yellow 
Poplar,  and  it  will  not  appear  advisable  to  undertake  its 
cultivation  beyond  natural  processes.  While  its  lumber  is 
largely  used  at  present,  mainly  because  of  a  shortage  of 
better  kinds,  it  is  not  such  as  to  command  a  high  price  in 
market. 


THE  CATALPAS 

There  are  two  species  of  Catalpas  in  the  United  States, 
somewhat  unlike  in  economic  value  and  botanical  charac- 
teristics, but  bearing  a  close  resemblance  in  general  ap- 
pearance. One  is  Catalpa  speciosa,  commonly  called  Hardy 
Catalpa,  and  the  other  Catalpa  hignonioides^  widely  known 
as  Bean-tree.  Neither  is  cut  into  lumber  to  any  notable 
extent,  their  value  lying  in  the  rapidity  of  growth  and  the 
durability  of  the  wood  when  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
These  features  render  them  of  enough  importance  to  justify 
classing  them  with  the  timber  trees  of  the  country. 

Catalpa  speoiosa  was  originally  found  only  in  southern 
Illinois,  southern  Indiana,  western  Kentucky,  northwestern 
Tennessee,  northeastern  Arkansas,  and  eastern  Missouri, 
but  by  cultivation  it  has  been  spread  over  a  much  larger  area. 
The  region  of  its  best  development  is  in  its  natural  range. 
It  is  the  more  important  of  the  two  species,  but  appears  to  be 
quite  variable  in  its  character.  In  some  sections  it  develops 
a  straight  stem,  with  a  full  height  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four  feet  or  more,  while  in 
others  it  will  insist  on  growing  crooked,  with  large  special- 
ized crooked  branches  and  limbs.  It  prefers  a  rich,  moist 
soil,  such  as  may  be  found  along  streams  and  around  ponds, 
even  submitting  to  occasional  inundations  without  injury. 
It  is  both  light-  and  moisture-demanding. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  more  Catalpa  trees  have  been 
planted  in  this  country  during  the  last  few  years,  than  of 
any  other  forest  species,  but,  unfortunately,  success  has  by 
no  means  always  followed  the  effort.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
that  the  wrong  species  has  been  planted —  that  Catalpa  hig- 
nonioides  has  been  substituted  for  Catalpa  speciosa.  This 
may  be  the  case,  and  largely  so,  too,  for  there  is  a  great 
similarity  in  the  trees,  but  it  is  certainly  known  that  there 


THE  CATALPAS  345 

has  been  no  mistake  in  some  instances  where  practical  fail- 
ure has  resulted.  Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  grow  the 
speciosa  where  climatic  conditions  were  unsuited  to  it,  as 
it  cannot  endure  a  low  temperature  in  the  winter,  and  it 
also  appears  to  be  exacting  as  to  soil  and  moisture.  Even 
where  not  killed  outright  by  a  low  temperature,  it  will 
frequently  crack  open  from  expansion  of  the  moisture  in  the 
wood  by  freezing.  In  many  places,  no  doubt,  the  soil  was 
ioo  poor  and  dry.  It  frequently  persists  in  growing  crooked, 
and  unless  young  trees  are  cut  close  to  the  ground  when 
well  established,  causing  a  new  shoot  to  spring  up,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  secure  a  straight  stem.  The  reason  of  this 
persistency  to  grow  crooked  may  be  readily  seen  upon  ex- 
amination of  the  ends  of  the  stem  and  twigs,  after  the 
winter  buds  are  formed,  where  it  will  be  found  that  there 
is  seldom  a  terminal  bud  to  be  seen ;  but  instead  there  are 
several  gathered  around  the  point  where  the  central  or  ter- 
minal bud  should  be,  and  when  they  start  to  grow  there  is 
a  contest  for  supremacy  and  a  forked  or  crooked  stem  or 
branch  is  the  result.  If  a  central  terminal  bud  has  been 
formed,  and  it  outgrows  its  close  neighbors,  there  will  then 
be  a  straight  stem ;  otherwise  a  crook  or  fork  follows.  Un- 
fortunately the  central  bud,  if  it  exists,  is  not  always  the 
successful  one.  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent^  speaks  of  the 
Catalpa  as  "  without  terminal  buds." 

The  wood  is  soft,  coarse-grained,  light,  not  strong,  but 
very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  heartwood  is 
light  brown,  with  nearly  white  sapwood  composed  of  few 
layers,  sometimes  not  more  than  three.  It  is  used  for  fence 
posts,  telegraph  and  other  like  poles,  for  railroad  ties,  and 
for  any  purpose  where  exemption  from  decay  is  demanded. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  wood  is  superior  to  it,  if  equal,  in  re- 
sisting decay  when  exposed  to  the  ground.  It  is  also  used 
to  a  slight  extent  for  interior  finish  and  furniture,  but  only 
because  better  lumber  is  more  expensive. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  propagation.  The  tree  bears 
^  Trees  of  North  America,  fSigQ  192. 


346  THE  CATALPAS 

seed  early  and  generally  annually.  Its  fruit  —  which  is  a 
pod,  sometimes  eighteen  inches  long,  containing  seeds  with 
wings  —  hangs  on  until  midwinter,  or  later,  and  can  be 
easily  gathered  and  kept,  until  time  to  plant,  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  Pine  or  Ash  seeds  are  cared  for.  They  are 
quite  fertile,  and  a  good  stand  of  seedlings  a  foot  or  more 
high  may  be  expected  by  fall.  They  can  be  successfully 
transplanted  into  the  forest  the  following  spring  or  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  seed-bed  another  year,  but  a  longer  period 
would  not  be  advisable,  as  they  are  rapid  growers  in  early 
as  well  as  in  later  life.  Little  loss  should  occur  in  trans- 
planting. 

Any  effort  to  plant  it  extensively  outside  of  its  natural 
habitat  should  be  carefully  considered,  and  it  will  cer- 
tainly be  advisable  to  plant  a  limited  area  at  first.  Experi- 
ment alone  can  determine  whether  it  will  succeed.  The 
name  "  Hardy  Catalpa  "  is  a  misnomer  for  a  portion  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  but  little  hardier 
than  the  other  species,  and  that  is  known  to  be  winter- 
killed in  many  sections.  It  appears  to  be  exempt  from 
fungus  diseases,  but  a  caterpillar  destroys  its  leaves  in 
some  sections.  In  many  places  outside  of  its  natural  range 
it  appears  to  lack  vitality  and  dies  as  of  old  age.  Any  one 
proposing  to  enter  upon  its  cultivation  should  secure  a 
copy  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  Circular,  No.  82, 
entitled  "  Hardy  Catalpa,"  where  its  character  and  natural 
habitat  and  the  best  methods  of  culture  are  exhaustively 
and  intelligently  discussed.  Its  rapid  growth  and  great 
durability  when  exposed  to  the  soil  make  it  a  very  desir- 
able tree  to  grow  if  the  right  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
prevail. 

The  other  species  —  Catalpa  bignonioides  —  is  a  trifle 
less  hardy  than  the  speciosa,  but  it  will  accept  conditions 
of  soil  that  the  latter  will  not.  Its  propensity  to  grow 
branched,  with  crooked  stem  and  specialized  limbs,  seems 
to  be  greater,  if  possible,  than  with  the  speciosa.  Like  that 
tree  it  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  the  young  trees  may  be  killed 


THE  CATALPAS  347 

down  to  the  ground  in  winter,  but  they  will  usually  spring  up 
again,  and  by  persistence  will  at  last  become  hardy  enough 
to  grow  into  fair-sized  trees.  It  is  nearly  as  durable  in  the 
soil  as  the  other  species,  and  can  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses. As  an  ornamental  tree  in  an  acceptable  climate  it  is 
surpassed  by  few.  It  is  a  wonderful  bloomer,  being  cov- 
ered annually  late  in  June  with  a  perfect  sheet  of  flowers, 
nearly  white,  but  tinged  with  purple,  in  great  clusters  and 
so  numerous  that  they  fairly  cover  the  ground  when  they 
fall.  The  seeds  are  in  pods  the  same  as  with  the  speciosa, 
and  gathering  and  caring  for  them  as  well  as  cultivation 
and  planting  in  the  forest  should  be  the  same  as  for  the 
speciosa.   It  will  grow  fairly  well  from  cuttings. 


EUCALYPTUS 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  forty  species  of  Eu- 
calyptus in  the  world,  nearly  all  indigenous  to  Australia, 
and  none  to  this  country.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  in- 
troduce some  of  the  species  here,  but  they  have  been  unsuc- 
cessful, except  in  Arizona  and  southern  California,  where 
they  grow  well.  Speculative  efforts  are  being  put  forth  to 
extend  their  cultivation  elsewhere,  but  there  is  no  proba- 
bility of  success,  unless  it  may  be  in  southern  Florida  or 
along  the  Gulf  in  southeastern  Texas.  Any  one  attempting 
to  grow  the  tree  outside  of  the  regions  named  will  un- 
doubtedly experience  a  disastrous  failure.  Difficulties  are 
experienced  even  in  southern  California.  The  tree  must 
have  a  warm,  moist  climate  and  abundant  water  for  its 
roots.  To  insure  success  in  California  the  young  trees  must, 
in  most  cases,  be  irrigated  until  the  roots  penetrate  the  soil 
deep  enough  to  obtain  the  needed  water.  It  is  an  ever- 
green, but  broadleaved,  and  requires  water  the  year  round, 
especially  when  grown  in  groves.  The  general  appearance 
is  something  like  that  of  the  Lombardy  Poplar,  —  tall, 
with  compact,  slim  crown ;  and  it  presents  anything  but  a 
tidy  appearance  when  shedding  its  leaves  and  dead  bark. 

In  favored  locations  it  is  a  very  rapid  grower,  —  none 
more  so,  —  and  it  grows  from  sprouts  and  seeds.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  a  seedling  to  grow  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height 
the  first  year,  and  sprouts  from  a  stump  will  exceed  that. 
The  author  started  one  from  seed  in  the  greenhouse  in 
April,  set  it  out  in  the  open  in  early  June,  and  when  the 
frost  killed  it  in  early  October  it  was  twelve  feet  high  and 
one  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt.  Planta- 
tions in  Lower  California  can  be  relied  on  to  be  fit  to  cut 
for  fuel  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  years  from  planting,  when 
the  stems  will  be  from  six  to  seven,  or  maybe  eight  inches 


EUCALYPTUS  349 

in  diameter,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  and 
practically  clean  of  limbs  for  more  than  half  their  height. 
At  ten  years  of  age,  they  may  reach  a  height  of  eighty, 
ninety,  or  even  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  ten 
or  twelve  inches.  The  tree  sprouts  freely  from  the  stump 
and  the  plantation  can  be  maintained  in  that  way.  It  is  a 
very  valuable  tree  for  southern  California,  where  trees  are 
not  abundant. 

The  wood  resembles  the  common  Locust  in  general  ap- 
pearance, is  coarse-grained,  comparatively  soft  when  green, 
but  hard  when  seasoned,  stiff,  strong,  not  very  elastic,  and 
checks  badly  when  seasoning.  Efforts  have  been  made  to 
use  it  for  carriagework,  as  in  poles  and  shafts,  but  the 
checks  persist  even  after  they  have  apparently  all  been 
worked  out.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  heavy  wagon  axles 
and  other  parts  requiring  great  strength,  and  serves  a  good 
purpose  there.  While  it  is  reported  to  be  durable  in  Aus- 
tralia, it  does  not  bear  out  that  claim  in  this  country,  for 
it  decays  very  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  ground.  If 
chemical  treatment  can  be  made  successful,  it  will  prove 
to  be  a  very  valuable  tree  for  telegraph  and  the  like  poles, 
and  for  railroad  ties  and  fence  posts.  Now  it  is  used  for 
little  else  than  fuel,  for  which  it  serves  a  good  purpose,  and 
it  is  a  profitable  tree  to  grow  for  that  in  its  chosen  habitat. 
It  also  provides  a  good  wind-break  for  the  protection  of 
fruit  trees  and  farm  crops.  When  studying  the  trees  of  the 
Pacific  Slope  a  few  years  ago,  the  author  would  inquire, 
wherever  it  was  found  abundant,  "  For  what  purpose  is  it 
grown  ?  "  The  answer  invariably  was,  "  For  fuel."  "  Any- 
thing else  ? "  "  Yes,  they  make  an  ointment  from  its 
leaves."  "  Is  that  all?"  Ordinarily,  "Yes."  One  old  resi- 
dent, however,  ventured  a  little  further.  He  said,  "  Just  to 
have  trees."  That  shows  the  estimate  put  upon  it  by  those 
who  have  had  practical  experience  with  it.  The  best  of  the 
two  species  cultivated  in  California  is  known  as  Eucalyjotus 
globulus  —  so  named  from  its  round  fruit.  It  is  called 
there  "  Blue  Gum,"  or  just  plain  "  Gum."    Unless  some 


350  EUCALYPTUS 

new  use,  not  now  known,  for  the  wood  is  discovered,  it 
should  not  be  classed  among  valuable  trees,  except  in 
Arizona  and  southern  California.  Its  propagation  from 
seed  is  somewhat  difficult,  but  in  that  mild  climate  it  is 
not  insurmountable. 


BROADLEAF  TREES   OF  THE  PACIFIC 
SLOPE 

While  the  Pacific  Slope  is  the  home  of  many  of  the 
largest  coniferous  trees  in  the  United  States,  and,  for  that 
matter,  in  the  world,  some  of  which  rank  among  the  high- 
est in  importance  in  the  lumber  trade,  —  the  region  is 
favored  with  but  few  broadleaf  species  that  can  be  favor- 
ably compared  with  those  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
fact,  none  are  quite  equal  to  the  eastern  relatives.  Some 
of  them,  however,  are  important  to  that  region  because 
they  are  indigenous  to  it,  and  in  some  localities  fairly 
abundant,  and  furnish  a  fair  grade  of  lumber  at  a  less 
price  than  the  eastern  hardwoods  can  be  delivered  for.  A 
brief  account  of  the  best  of  them  is  here  given,  taken,  in 
part,  from  Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  by  George 
B.  Sud worth,  dendrologist  of  the  Forest  Service  of  the 
United  States,  combined  with  the  author's  personal  ob- 
servations when  studying  the  timber  trees  of  that  region. 

Poplars.  Under  this  head  may  be  classed  the  Cotton- 
woods  and  the  Aspens.  These  are  substantially  the  same 
in  general  character  as  the  Eastern  species  and  the  uses 
they  can  be  put  to  are  practically  the  same.  The  Cotton- 
woods  are  found  along  the  low  grounds  of  the  valleys  and 
in  the  moist  sandy  soils.  The  Aspens  seek  the  higher  and 
drier  slopes  and  elevations.  Little  use  is  now  made  of 
either,  but  as  pulp  wood  becomes  exhausted  in  the  East  and 
other  species  of  timber  trees  grow  less  abundant  in  the 
extreme  West,  these  woods  may  be  profitable  to  plant ;  but 
the  ample  supply  of  other  and  better  ones  will  not  justify 
that  effort  at  the  present  time. 

The  Oaks.  There  are  fourteen  species  of  Oaks  on  the 
Pacific  Slope.  All  of  them  can  be  found  in  California  and 


352     BROADLEAF  TREES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE 

few  of  them  elsewhere.  Some  are  magnificent  trees,  in  an 
{esthetic  sense,  with  immense  short  stems  and  large  crooked 
branches  and  picturesque  crowns  ;  but  the  wood  is  very  in- 
ferior in  most  of  them,  decaying  quickly,  splitting  badly  in 
drying,  and  is  not  even  first-class  fuel.  This  is  especially  so 
with  the  Valley  White  Oak  (Quercus  lohata'),  which  may 
be  seen  nearly  the  entire  length  of  California,  growing  far 
apart  and,  in  some  sections,  with  moss  drooping  from  its 
limbs  somewhat  similar  to  the  moss  on  some  of  the  trees  of 
the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  Only  two  of  them  can 
be  considered  of  enough  importance  to  warrant  attempts  at 
cultivation. 

Garry  Oak.  This  is  sometimes  called  White  Oak.  Its 
botanical  name  is  Quercus  garryana.  It  grows  on  elevations 
from  near  sea  level  to  three  thousand  or  four  thousand  feet 
above,  from  Vancouver  Island  to  central  California.  It  is 
the  most  valuable  timber  Oak  in  the  Northern  Pacific  Coast 
region.  In  its  best  development  it  grows  from  seventy-five 
to  ninety  feet  high,  but  usually  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet,  and 
from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  short, 
clean  stem  and  a  broad,  round  crown ;  but  on  high  moun- 
tain-slopes it  dwindles  to  a  shrubby  tree.  The  wood  is  hard, 
fine-grained,  tough,  strong,  and  stiff,  heartwood  light  yel- 
lowish brown  with  thin,  nearly  white  sap  wood,  and  suitable 
for  nearly  the  same  general  purposes  for  which  standard 
grades  of  Eastern  White  Oak  are  employed.  It  belongs  to 
the  White  Oak  Class,  and  matures  its  seed  in  one  year. 
It  is  a  prolific  seeder  every  two  years.  Having  a  tap-root, 
it  is  probable  that  planting  acorns  will  be  the  best  method 
of  reproduction.  It  cannot  be  learned  that  any  attempt 
has  been  made  to  cultivate  it.  It  is  light-demanding  but 
will  endure  a  slight  shade  in  early  life.  Germination  of 
naturally  sown  seeds  does  not  appear  to  occur  readily,  es- 
pecially on  grassy  surfaces  where  the  seeds  generally  fall. 
Seedlings  are  rarely  seen  there.  They  are  most  frequent 
on  moist  humus  soil  and  litter.    Being  the  most  important 


TANBARK  OAK  353 

Oak  in  the  region  west  of  the  eastern  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  efforts  should  be  made  to  cultivate  it, 
—  at  all  events,  to  encourage  natural  reproduction. 

Tanbark  Oak.  Strictly  speaking,  this  tree  is  not  an 
Oak,  but  a  link  between  an  Oak  and  a  Chestnut.  Its 
leaves  resemble  those  of  the  Chestnut,  even  more  so  than 
do  those  of  the  eastern  species  of  Chestnut  Oak,  while  the 
acorns  are  similar  to  those  of  an  Oak,  and  it  takes  two 
years  for  them  to  mature.  It  is  the  only  one  of  its  genus  on 
this  continent,  though  there  are  several  in  China  and  Japan. 
It  is  classed,  however,  as  an  Oak  by  lumbermen,  and  for  all 
practical  purposes  such  classification  is  not  objectionable. 
It  is  botanically  known  as  Pasania  densijlora.  It  is  not 
a  first-class  timber  tree,  but  is  worthy  of  consideration  in 
a  region  where  there  are  few  useful  hardwoods,  and  where 
the  extensive  use  of  its  bark  for  tanning  adds  to  its  value. 
Its  range  is  from  southwestern  Oregon  to  southern  Cali- 
fornia, generally  at  from  sea  level  to  four  thousand  and  five 
thousand  feet  elevation.  It  is  seldom  found  over  seventy- 
five  feet  in  height  and  two  feet  in  diameter,  but  larger 
trees  are  occasionally  met  with.  On  high  elevations  it 
may  not  exceed  ten  feet  in  height,  and  its  characteristics 
there  are  so  modified  as  to  raise  question  as  to  its  identity. 

The  wood  is  dense,  fine-grained,  strong,  very  hard,  brit- 
tle, —  this  latter  feature  varying  with  age,  — reddish  brown, 
with  thick,  darker- brown  sapwood.  The  wood  is  now  mainly 
used  for  fuel  and  the  bark  for  tanning,  although  the  wood, 
if  properly  treated,  would  do  well  for  interior  finish,  fur- 
niture, and  many  other  purposes.  It  is  now  being  recklessly 
cut  and  destroyed,  mainly  for  the  bark.  Little  or  no  effort 
appears  to  have  been  made  to  care  for  its  preservation  and 
none  towards  its  cidtivation.  It  is  a  prolific  seeder  and  the 
seedlings  stand  considerable  shade.  It  sprouts  vigorously 
from  the  stump,  producing  permanent  stems.  With  proper 
treatment  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  natural  reproduction 
would  maintain  an  abundant  supply. 


354    BROADLEAF  TREES  OF  THE  PACIFIC   SLOPE 

Broadleaf  Maple.  Of  the  four  species  of  Maple  growing 
on  the  Pacific  Slope,  only  this  has  any  economic  value  as  a 
timber  tree.  It  is  quite  frequently  called  "  Bigleaf  Maple  " 
and  "  Oregon  Maple."  Botanically  it  is  known  as  Acer 
macrophyllum.  Its  range  is  from  northern  Washington  to 
southern  California,  along  borders  of  foothills  and  low 
mountain  streams,  in  moist,  gravelly,  and  rich  humus  soils. 
Its  climatic  requirements  are  those  of  the  Douglas  and 
other  Firs.  It  forms  practically  pure  stands  over  large 
areas,  but  is  often  mixed  with  Lowland  Fir.  It  is  light- 
demanding,  and  when  in  dense  stands  grows  straight  and 
quite  free  from  limbs.  It  attains  a  height  of  from  sixty  to 
eighty  feet  with  a  diameter  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches, 
sometimes  larger,  but  when  in  the  open,  it  is  short-stemmed, 
crooked,  and  practically  worthless  for  lumber. 

The  wood  is  fine-grained,  rather  hard,  firm,  not  strong, 
heartwood  light  brown,  with  pale  reddish  tint,  and  thick 
lighter-colored  sapwood.  It  is  largely  used  for  interior 
finish,  furniture,  and  general  purposes,  in  which  it  com- 
pares quite  favorably  with  the  Hard  Maples  of  the  East- 
ern States.  It  is  a  tree  of  first  importance  in  the  region 
where  it  grows.  Whether  it  will  flourish  outside  of  its  na- 
tural habitat  is  problematical.  It  may  be  as  exacting  in 
climatic  conditions  as  is  its  frequent  companion  the  Dou- 
glas Fir.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  forest-grown  trees  fifty  to 
eighty  years  of  age  attaining  a  diameter  of  twelve  to  twenty 
inches,  averaging  an  annual  layer  of  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness.  It  sometimes  reaches  an  age  of  two  hundred 
years. 

While  no  efforts  are  known  to  have  been  made  to  culti- 
vate it  for  any  other  than  ornamental  purposes,  there  is  no 
question  but  that  it  can  be  readily  grown  as  a  forest  tree  in 
its  natural  habitat.  It  is  a  good  seeder  and  germination  takes 
place  quite  well  naturally,  although  growing  plants  in  a 
nursery  would  more  certainly  result  in  a  satisfactory  stand. 
Its  great  importance  as  a  timber  tree  renders  its  cultivation 
highly  desirable. 


OREGON  ASH  355 

Oregon  Ash.  This  is  the  only  Ash  of  importance  in  the 
Pacific  Coast  region.  Its  botanical  designation  is  Fraxinus 
oregoiia.  It  may  be  found  from  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound 
south  to  San  Francisco  and  along  the  foothills  of  the  Si- 
erra. In  most  favored  localities  forest  trees  have  long,  clean 
stems,  and  narrow,  short  crowns  of  small  branches,  and  are 
from  sixty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  and  from  sixteen 
to  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  sometimes  larger. 

The  wood  is  substantially  like  the  White  Ash  of  the  East- 
ern States.  The  heartwood  is  a  dull  yellowish  brown,  with 
whitish  sapwood.  In  forest-grown  trees  it  is  moderately 
brittle  and  fine-grained,  but  in  open-grown  trees  it  is  elastic 
and  coarse-grained,  particularly  in  the  sapwood  of  young 
trees.  The  wood  is  not  so  heavy  as  that  of  our  Eastern 
Ashes,  but  for  general  usefulness  it  compares  very  favor- 
ably with  them,  and  in  the  main  will  serve  for  the  same 
economic  purposes. 

It  is  a  good  seeder,  but  the  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  are  borne  on  separate  trees,  and  hence,  in  gathering 
seed,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are  fertile.  Natu- 
ral reproduction  is  fairly  good,  if  on  suitable  soil,  which  is 
that  of  alluvial  bottoms  and  flats,  and  in  this  it  main- 
tains the  character  of  its  eastern  relative  the  White  Ash. 
Whether  it  has  a  largely  developed  tap-root,  as  most  Ashes 
have,  or,  if  so,  whether  it  can  be  deprived  of  it  without 
serious  consequences,  as  in  the  case  of  the  White  Ash,  the 
author  does  not  know.  If  it  possesses  no  tap-root  or  if 
it  has  a  tap-root  that  can  be  removed  without  serious 
results,  it  can,  no  doubt,  be  successfully  grown  in  the  nurs- 
ery and  transplanted  into  the  forest ;  otherwise  planting 
seeds  must  be  resorted  to.  It  is  a  fairly  prolific  seeder, 
with  a  high  percentage  of  fertility.  It  makes  a  rapid  height 
growth  in  early  life.  Forest-grown  trees  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-five  inches  in  diameter  are  from  ninety-five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  years  old.  As  age  creeps  on,  they 
grow  more  slowly.  It  certainly  is  worthy  of  an  attempt  at 
cultivation  as  a  forest  tree. 


356     BROADLEAF  TREES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE 

Red  Alder.  There  are  six  species  of  Alder  in  the  Uuited 
States,  aud  only  one  of-  them  is  of  any  commercial  value. 
The  common  name  of  that  one  is  Red  Alder,  and  it  is 
botanically  known  as  Alnus  oregona.  It  may  be  found 
growing  from  Puget  Sound  and  the  southwestern  part  of 
Washington,  in  Oregon,  and  along  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
California  from  the  Oregon  line  to  Santa  Barbara.  It  is  a 
broadleaf  deciduous  conifer.  It  may  be  found  from  eighty 
to  ninety  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of  eighteen  to 
thirty  inches,  although  far  more  commonly  only  forty  to 
fifty  feet  high  and  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  through.  It  is 
light-demanding,  and  when  grown  in  dense  stands,  sends 
up  a  straight  stem,  with  small,  slim,  drooping  limbs  in  the 
crown.  The  seedlings  can  endure  considerable  shade. 

The  heartwood  is  soft,  somewhat  brittle,  not  strong,  close- 
grained,  light  brown  tinged  with  red,  with  very  thick  and 
nearly  white  sapwood  when  newly  cut,  but  which  turns  to 
a  red-brown  soon  after.  This  discoloration  comes  from  the 
large  amount  of  tannic  acid  in  the  wood,  a  sample  of  which, 
secured  by  the  author,  showed,  on  analysis,  8.45  per  cent 
of  tannin.  It  shows  a  fine  satiny  surface  when  properly 
treated,  and  can  be  used  for  interior  finish  and  furniture. 
Some  fine  samples  of  the  finished  wood  were  on  exhibition 
at  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Exhibition  at  Portland,  Oregon. 

It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  and  if  care  were  taken  to  thin 
dense  natural  stands,  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  profitable  to 
grow  it  for  lumber  alone,  for  it  is  a  rapid  grower  for  the 
first  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  of  its  life,  trees  running 
from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  at  twenty-five  to 
fifty  years  of  age,  while  the  large  amount  of  tannin  the 
wood  contains  will  add  to  its  value  when  other  sources  for 
that  necessary  commodity  fail.  It  attains  its  largest  size 
along  the  coast,  and  flourishes  best  in  a  moist,  fertile  soil 
and  a  humid  atmosphere. 

Western  Chinquapin.  No  doubt  this  tree  has  been 
called  a  Chinquapin  because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  fruit 


WESTERN   CHINQUAPIN  357 

to  that  of  the  Chinquapin  of  the  Southern  States,  a  tree 
which  belongs  to  the  Chestnut  family.  But  it  is  neither  a 
Chestnut  nor  a  Chinquapin,  and  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind 
on  this  continent.  Its  botanical  name  is  Castanopsis  cJiry- 
sophylla.  It  is  sometimes  called  "  Golden  Chestnut."  It  is 
an  evergreen,  shedding  its  leaves  at  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond or  third  year.  It  is  scattered  throughout  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California,  but  the  region  of  its  large  growth 
is  comparatively  smaU,  as  in  much  of  its  range  it  gets  but 
little  above  pole  dimensions,  and  on  high  elevations  is  prac- 
tically a  shrub.  Its  largest  and  best  development  is  in  north- 
western California  among  the  Redwoods,  in  the  moist,  mild 
air  of  that  region.  It  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  one 
hundred  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  three  to  four  feet,  — 
larger  dimensions  are  reported,  —  but  ordinarily  it  reaches 
only  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  height  and  eight  to  fifteen  inches 
in  diameter.  It  is  of  rather  slow  growth,  trees  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter  ranging  from  one  hundred 
and  forty-five  to  one  hundred  and  ninety  years  of  age. 

The  wood  is  light,  fine-grained,  not  strong,  rather  soft 
and  somewhat  brittle,  pale  reddish  brown,  with  lighter- 
colored  sapwood  of  fifty  to  sixty-five  annual  layers.  The 
bark  is  rich  in  tannin.  Large  trees  furnish  excellent  saw 
timber  which  is  suitable  for  agricultural  implements  and 
like  purposes.  Its  seed  is  a  small  sweet  nut  inclosed  in  a 
burr  somewhat  like  that  of  a  Chestnut  and  it  requires  two 
years  to  mature.  It  is  a  prolific  seeder,  but  the  little  nuts 
are  largely  consumed  by  animals.  It  is  not  known  that  any 
attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  it.  No  doubt  its  propa- 
gation can  be  made  successful,  but  whether  by  planting 
seeds  or  growing  young  trees  in  the  nursery  can  be  known 
only  after  experiment.  It  is  evident  that  any  attempt,  out- 
side of  the  range  of  its  best  development,  will  be  useless, 
for  it  is  essentially  a  lover  of  a  moist  atmosphere  and  a 
mild  climate,  flourishing  only  where  such  conditions  exist. 

THE  END 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


GLOSSARY  OF   SCIENTIFIC  NAMES  OF  SPECIES  OF 
TREES 

Acuminata.  Tapering  to  a  point. 

Alba.  White. 

Amabilis.  Amiable,  lovely. 

AngustifoUa.  Narrow-leaved. 

Aqitatica.  Of  the  water,  aquatic. 

Balsamifera.  Balsam-producing. 

Bignonioides.  Bignonia-like. 

Canadensis.  Canadian. 

Cinerea.  Ashy-gray. 

Coccinea.  Scarlet. 

Concolor.  Of  one  color. 

Contorta.  Twisted. 

Deltoides.  Delta-shaped  (as  to  leaves). 

Densifiora.  Densely  flowered. 

Dentata.  Toothed  (as  to  leaves). 

Digitata.  Having  fingers  (leaflets  resembling  fingers). 

Distichum.  Of  two  rows  (as  to  leaves). 

Divaricata.  Spread  out  (having  abrupt  or  right-angled  branches, 

straggling). 
Echinata.  Prickly. 
Engelmanni.  Named  for  Engelmann. 
Europea.  European. 
Excelsa.  Tall,  lofty. 
Glabra.  Smooth,  without  pubescence. 
Globidus.  Round  (as  to  fruit). 
Grandidentata.  Deeply  dentated  (as  to  leaves). 
Grandis.  Grand. 
Heterophylla.  Variable-leaved. 
Laciniosa.  Jagged  (as  to  leaves). 


362  APPENDIX 

Lamhertiana.  Named  for  Lambert. 

Lanceolata.  Laace-shaped  (as  to  leaves). 

Lenta.  Pliant. 

Lutea.  Yellow. 

Lyallii.  Named  for  Lyall. 

Lyrata.  Lyre-shaped  (as  to  fruit). 

Macrocarpa.  Large-fruited. 

Macrophyllum.  Large-leaved. 

Magnifica.  Magnificent. 

Michauxii.  Named  for  Michaux. 

Minor.  Smaller. 

Monticola.  Mountain-inhabiting. 

Nohilis.  Noble. 

Occidentalis.  Western. 

Ovata.  Egg-shaped  (as  to  fruit  or  leaves). 

Pagodcefolia.  With  pagoda-like  leaves. 

Palustris.  Marsh-loving.  < 

Papyr'ifera.  Paper-bearing. 

Pennsylvanicum.  Of  Pennsylvania. 

Platanoides.  Plane-tree-like. 

Plicata.  Folded. 

Ponderosa.  Heavy. 

Primes.  Latin  name  for  a  species  of  Oak. 

Pseudacacia.  False  Acacia. 

Puhescens.  Downy  (as  to  leaves). 

Quadrangulata.  Four-angled. 

Racemosa.  With  racemes  (the  simplest  form  of  elongated  flower- 
cluster). 

Resinosa.  Resinous. 

Rigida.  Stiff  (as  to  leaves). 

Ruhens.  Reddish. 

Rubra.  Red. 

Saccharinum.  Sugary. 

Saccharum.  Sugary. 

Sempervirens.  Evergreen. 

Serotina.  Late  (as  to  flowering). 

Speciosa,  Beautiful,  showy. 

Strobus.  The  name  of  an  incense-bearing  tree  of  Persia,  men- 
tioned by  Pliny. 

Styracifiua.  Gum-exuding. 


APPENDIX  363 

Sylvestris.  Of  the  woods. 

Tceda.  Resinous,  pitchy. 

Taxifolia.  Yew-leaved. 

Thyoides.  Resembling  Thuya. 

Tinctoria.  Pertaining  to  the  dyer. 

Tremuloides.    Resembling     Tremula    {Populus    tremula,    the 

European  aspen). 
Triacanthos.  Three-thorned. 
Tulipifera.  Tulip-bearing. 
Velutina.  Velvet-like. 
Virginiana.  Of  Virginia. 


II 


THE   AVERAGE   HEIGHT  WHICH   SEEDLINGS   OF   DIF- 
FERENT SPECIES  REACH  IN  ONE  AND  TWO  YEARS 

The  following  Table  shows  approximately  the  height  which 
seedlings  of  the  different  species  named  attain  in  one  and  two 
years.  Conditions  of  soil,  location,  and  climate  naturally  operate 
to  modify  the  figures  given.  In  all  cases  there  are  extremes  both 
ways  even  in  close  association. 

Species                                                                   <^°®  ^^^^  Two  years 

inches  inches 

White  Pine IJ  2^ 

Western  White  Pine 1^  2 

Sugar  Pine 2  4 

Longleaf  Pine Ij  2 

Cuban  Pine 4  8 

Shortleaf  Pine 4  6 

Old-Field  Pine 7  12 

Western  Yellow  Pine 1^  4 

Red  Spruce 1  2 

White  Spruce 1  2| 

Engelmann  Spruce 1^  5 

Norway  Spruce 1  5 

Fraser  Fir 1^  4 

Balsam  Fir 1  2| 

Douglas  Fir 1^  3 

Hemlock 1  1^ 

White  Cedar 1  1^ 

European  Larch 1^  6 

White  Oak 3  6 

Overcup  Oak 6  10 

Burr  Oak 6  10 

Red  Oak 5  8 

Black  Oak 4  9 

Pin  Oak 5  12 


APPENDIX  306 

White  Ash S  16 

Red  Ash 7  14 

Sbagbai'k  Hickory 4  9 

Shellbaik  Hickory 3  8 

Mockernut  Hickory 5  10 

Pignut  Hickory 4  8 

Sugar  Maple 4                       6 

Silver  Maple 8  18 

Red  Maple 8  15 

Yellow  Poplar 5  15 

Chestnut 4  10 

White  Elm 6  20 

Red  Elm 8  20 

Cork  Elm 6  15 

Basswood 4  10 

Black  Birch 2  4 

Yellow  Birch 4  8 

Beech 4  10 

Black  Walnut 8  15 

Butternut 10  15 

Locust 4  9 

Honey  Locust 5  15 

Sycamore 6  18 

Red  Gum 8  15 

Catalpa 8  15 


Ill 


APPROXIMATE   RANGE  IN  THE  PERCENTAGE  OF 

GERMINATION  FOR  TWENTY-SIX 

IMPORTANT  SPECIES  1 

■VT  .  .  Percentasre  of  eerm- 

Name  of  species                                                   j,^^^.^^  -^  ^^J^  ^^^^ 

White  Pine 70  to  90 

Longleaf  Pine 60  85 

Shortleaf  Pine 50  75 

Loblolly  Pine 50  80 

Western  Yellow  Pine 60  80 

Red  Spruce 60  75 

Bald  Cypress 25  50 

White  Oak 75  95 

Chestnut  Oak 75  95 

Burr  Oak 75  95 

Red  Oak 60  80 

White  Ash 35  50 

Shagbark  Hickory 50  75 

Shellbark  Hickory 50  75 

Mockernut  Hickory 50  75 

Pignut  Hickory 50  75 

Sugar  Maple 30  50 

Yellow  Poplar 5  10 

Chestnut 75  95 

Black  Cherry 75  80 

White  Elm 50  75 

Cork  Elm 50  75 

Black  Walnut 75  80 

Honey  Locust 50  75 

Sycamore 60  75 

Catalpa 40  75 

»  Trom  United  Slates  Forest  Service  Bulletin,  No.  29,  "  The  Nursery,"  page  36. 


IV 


NUMBER   OF  TREE   SEEDS   PER   OUNCE   AND   POUND, 

AND   ALSO   THE    APPROXIMATE    NUMBER   OF 

LINEAR  FEET   OF   SEED   DRILL   COVERED 

BY  EACH  QUANTITY  1 


Number  of 

Number  of 

Covered 

Covered 

Species 

seeds  in 

seeds  in 

by  one 

by  one 

one  ounce 

pound 

ounce 

ponnd 

White  Pine       .... 

1.800 

28,800 

36 

576 

Red  Pine 

4,700 

76.160 

75 

1.200 

Shortleaf  Pine       .     .     . 

4,900 

79,840 

80 

1,280 

Western  Yellow  Pine     . 

100 

1,600 

16 

256 

Norway  Spruce     .     .     . 

5,260 

84,160 

75 

1,200 

Red  Fir 

4,200 

67,200 

60 

960 

Bald  CjTiress^  .... 

320 

5,120 

20 

320 

Honey  Locust  .... 

200 

3,200 

16 

256 

Hardy  Catalpa      .     .     . 

1,230 

19,680 

60 

960 

White  Ash 

640 

10,200 

25 

400 

Sugar  IMaple    .... 

470 

7,498 

20 

320 

Black  Cherry   .... 

279 

4,464 

20 

320 

Basswood 

397 

6,352 

20 

320 

White  Elm 

5,820 

93,120 

125 

2,000 

Red  Elm 

3,398 

54,368 

80 

1,280 

1  Copied  from  Uniled  States  Forest  Senice  Bulletin,  No.  29. 

»  About  fifty  per  cent  of  the  bulk  of  Cypress  seed  in  the  trade  consists  of  refuse  shells 
of  cooes. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abies  amabilis  (lovely  fir),  194, 195. 

Abies  balsamea  (balsam  fir),  190,  191. 

Abies  concolor  (white  fir),  193,  194. 

Abies/raseri,  189,  190. 

Abies  grandis  (white,  or  grand  fir), 
192  193. 

Abies  magnifica  (red  fir),  197,  198. 

Abies  magnijica  shastensis,  197. 

Abies  nobilis  (noble  fir),  195, 196 ;  why 
once  called  a  larch,  195. 

Acer  macTophyllum  (broadleaf,  or 
Oregon  maple),  276,  354. 

Acer  nigrum  (black  maple),  276-280. 

Acer  rubrum  (red  maple),  282. 

Acer  saccharinum  (silver,  or  soft 
maple),  280,  281. 

Acer  saccharum  (angar  maple),  276- 
280. 

Age,  at  which  trees  should  be  har- 
vested, 53  ff. ;  proper,  for  trans- 
planting, 112,  113. 

Alder,  red.  See  Alnus  oregona. 

Alnus  oregona  (red  alder),  356. 

Annual  rings,  71,  72. 

Arborvitse,  species  of,  210.  See 
Thuya  occidentalis  and  T.  plicata. 

Artificial  reforestation.  See  Reforest- 
ation, artificial. 

Ash,  black.  See  Fraxinus  nigra. 

Ash,  blue.  See  Fraxinus  quadran- 
gulata. 

Ash,  green.  See  Fraxinus  lanceolata. 

Ash,  Oregon.  See  Fraxinus  oregona. 

Ash,  red.  See  Fraxinus pennsylvanica. 

Ash,  white,  354.  And  see  Frajcinus 
americana. 

Ashes,  the,  species  that  produce  mer- 
chantable lumber,  258.  See  various 
species  under  Fraxinus. 

Aspen,  largetooth.  See  Populus  gran- 
didentata. 

Aspen,  trembling,  39,  178.  And  see 
Populus  tremuloides- 

Aspens,  two  species  of  poplar  so- 
called,  332 ;  on  Pacific  slope,  351. 

Anstria,  revenue  of  national  forests 
in,  18  a. 


Baden,  revenue  of  national  forests  in, 

18  and  n. 
Baker,  Hugh  P.,  quoted,  223,  224. 
Balm  of  Gilead.  See  Populus  balsami- 

fera. 
Balsam,  Canada,  190. 
Balsams.  See  Abies  balsamea  and  A. 
fraseri. 
Bark,   protective    function    of,    67; 

growth  of,  in  tree-life,  71 ;  changes 

in,  74,  75,  76 ;  "  live  "  and  "  dead," 

75 ;  useful  ingredients  of  ,75;  speciea 

easily  distinguished  by,  76. 
Barnyard  manure,  105. 
Basswood.  See  Tilia  americana. 
Basswood,   downy.    See  Tilia  pubes- 

cens. 
Basswood,  white.    See   Tilia  hetero- 

phylla. 
Basswoods,  species  of,  302. 
Bastard  sawing,  86. 
Bavaria,  revenue  of  national  forests 

in,  IS  and  n. ;  investigations  in  as 

to  comparative  demands  of  trees 

and  crops  on  the  soil,  36. 
Bean  tree.  See  Catalpa  bignonioides. 
Beech.  See  Fagus  americana. 
Beech,  red,  310,311. 
Beech,  white,  310. 
Betula  lenta  (black  birch),  306,  307. 
Betula  lutea  (yellow,  or  gray  birch). 

307,308. 
Betula  nigra   (red,  op  river  birch), 

306. 
Betula  papyri/era   (paper,  or  canoe 

birch),  308,  309. 
"  Big  stockings,"  328. 
Big    tree,    199.     And    see    Sequoia 

washingtoniana. 
Big-bud  hickory.  273. 
Birch,  black,    291.   And  see   Betula 

lenta. 
Birch,  canoe.  See  Betula  papyrifera. 
Birch,  cherry,  291.   And  see   Betula 

lenta. 
Birch,  gray.  See  Betula  lutea. 
Birch,  paper.  See  Betula  papyri/era. 


372 


INDEX 


Birch,  red.  See  Betula  nigra. 

Birch,  river.  See  Betula  nigra. 

Birch,  sweet.  See  Betula  lenta. 

Birch,  yellow.  See  Betula  lutea. 

Birches,  the,  economically  important 
species  of,  306.  And  see  under 
Betula. 

Bird's-eye  maple,  278. 

Birds,  methods  of  protecting  seeds 
from,  98. 

Bitternut,  274. 

Blackjack,  251. 

"  Blisters,"  190. 

Bone,  ground,  105,  106. 

Botanical  range.     See  Range. 

Brainiff,  Edward  A.,  quoted,  56. 

Broadcast  sowing,  one  method  of  ar- 
tificial reforestation,  26,  27 ;  in  nur- 
sery, 93-95. 

Broadleaf  trees,  should  they  be 
mingled  with  conifers  ?  44,  45 ;  in 
treeless  regions,  52  ;  transplanting 
less  important  for,  than  for  coni- 
fers, 111,  112;  of  the  Pacific  Slope, 
351-357. 

Buds,  in  tree-life,  63. 

Burning,  best  method  of  treating  land 
covered  with  worthless  trees,  39, 
40. 

Butternut.    See  Juglans  cinerea. 

Buttonball.  See  Platanus  occiden- 
talis. 

Buttonwood.  See  Platanus  occiden- 
talis. 

Cambium  layer,  the,  between  wood 
and  bark,  67,  71,  74;  a  store- 
house  for  food,  71 ;  experiment 
with,  75,  76. 

Canada,  forest  products  of,  not  avail- 
able for  U.  S.,  9 ;  and  the  export- 
ation of  wood-pulp,  9 ;  forest  pro- 
ducts of,  128. 

Castanea  dentata  (chestnut),  239,  286- 
290;  disastrous  fungus  disease  of, 
290. 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla  (western 
chinquapin),  356,  357  ;  not  really  a 
chinquapin,  357. 

Catalpa,  294  n. 

Catalpa  bignonioides  (bean  tree),  346, 
347. 

Catalpa,  hardy.  See  Catalpa  ispeciosa. 

Catalpa  speciosa  (hardy  catalpa), 
344-346. 

Catalpas,  the,  species  in  U.  S.,  344. 


Cedar,  red.  See  Juniperus  virginiana, 
and  Thuya  plicata. 

Cedar,  western  red.  See  Thuya  pli- 
cata. 

Cedar,  white.  See  Thuya  occidentalis, 
and  ChamcEcyparis  thyoides. 

Cedars,  species  so  misnamed,  207. 

Century  Dictionary,  "  grain "  and 
"  fibre,"  how  defined  in,  80. 

ChamoBcyparis  thyoides,  212. 

Checking,  82,  83,  84. 

Cherry.     See  Prunus  serotina. 

Cherry,  black,  306.  And  see  Prunus 
serotina. 

Cherry,  rum.     See  Prunus  serotina. 

Cherry,  wild.     See  Prunus  serotina. 

Chestnut,  may  recur  in  second 
growth,  18.  And  see  Castanea  den- 
tata 

Chestnut,  "  golden,"  357. 

Chinese,  and  the  sugar  pine,  149. 

Chinquapin,  western.  See  Castanop- 
sis chrysophylla. 

Chinquapin  oak.  See  Querent  acumi- 
nata. 

Chlorophyl,  66,  69. 

Clean-cutting,  22. 

Clements,  F.  E.,  Plant  Physiology  and 
Ecology,  quoted,  68. 

Close-grained,  81. 

Coal,  world-supply  of,  its  probable 
duration,  10,  58. 

Coarse-grained,  81. 

Color,  of  wood,  an  element  of  value, 
85. 

Cones,  described,  133 ;  of  Pinus 
strobus,  140,  141. 

Conifers,  grown  in  nursery,  when 
transplanted,  29;  should  they  be 
mingled  with  broadleaf  trees  ?  44, 
45  ;  in  treeless  regions,  52  ;  the  lum- 
berman's "  softwoods,"  79 ;  import- 
ance of  transplanting.  111,  112, 
113 ;  their  early  growth  slow,  112. 

Conservation  of  forests.     See  Forests. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources, 
need  of,  3,  4. 

Conservation  cutting.  See  Selective 
cutting 

Cottonwood.     See  Populus  deltoides. 

Cottonwood,  swamp.  See  Populus 
heterophylla. 

Cottonwood,  yellow,  339. 

Cottonwoods,  other  species  known  as, 
in  U.S.,  332  Jf.;  on  Pacific  slope,  351. 

Cross-grained,  81. 


INDEX 


373 


Crown  development,  65. 

Cucumber.     See  Magnolia  acuminata. 

Cultivation  of  plants  in  forest  nurs- 
ery, 100  # 

Cut-over  forests,  seldona  consist  of 
original  species,  18. 

Cut-over  lands,  14,  42. 

Cutting-.  See  Improvement  cutting 
and  Selective  cutting. 

Cypress,  only  one  American  species  of 
commerci&l  value,  215. 

"  Damping-off, "  in  nursery,  how 
treated,  102;  prevention  the  only 
remedy,  102. 

Decay,  caused  by  disease,  84. 

Deciduous  trees.  See  Trees,  decidu- 
ous. I 

Diameter  of  trees  at  various  ages,  54. 

Douglas  squirrel,  the,  149.  j 

Downing,  A.  J.,  205.  ! 

Drills,  sowing  in,  in  nursery,  95-97  ; ' 
statistics  concerning,  367.  | 

Droughts,  caused  by  absence  of  for- : 
ests,  8. 

Drying,  effect  of,  on  different  classes 
of  seeds,  116-118.  And  see  Season- 
ing. 

Dry-kilns,  uses  of,  S4. 

"Eaty"  fibre,  77 

Elm,  cedar.     See  Ulmus  crassifolia. 

Elm,  cork,  297.  And  see  Ulmus  race- 
mosa. 

Elm,  gray.     See  Ulmus  americana. 

Elm,  hard,  300. 

Elm,  red,  297.  And  see  Ulmus  pube- 
scens. 

Elm,  rock,  300. 

Elm,  slippery.     See  Ulmus  pubescens. 

Elm,  weeping.  300. 

Elm,  white.     See  Ulmus  americana. 

Elms,  the,  species  indigenous  in  U.S., 
296.     See  under  Ulmus. 

Engelraann  spruce.  See  Picea  engel- 
manni. 

England.     See  Great  Britain, 

Erosion,  of  soil,  usually  follows  de- 
struction of  forests,  8  ;  effect  of,  on 
reforestation,  8, 9;  ultimate  effect  of, 
9  ;  degree  of,  important  in  denuded 
land,  38  ;  in  farm  lands,  59,  60. 

Eucalyptus,  none  of  the  many  species 
of,  indigenous  in  U.  S.,  348  ;  two 
species  successfully  introduced  in 
Arizona  and  California,  348. 


Eucalyptus  globulus,  349. 

Europe,  consumption  of  forest  pro- 
ducts in.  128. 

Evaporation,  31. 

Evergreens,  include  both  soft  and  hard 
woods  in  lumbermem's  classification, 
79  ;  fall  planting  of,  121. 

Exogens,  the  only  real  timber  trees, 
71. 

Fagus  americana  (beech),  310-312; 
but  one  species  in  U.  S.,  310,  311 ; 
fungus  disease  of,  312. 

Farm  purposes,  growth  of  trees  for, 
58^. 

Farmer,  the,  must  grow  trees,  59. 

Farms,  lands  suitable  for  tree-growth 
on,  59,  60. 

Female  flowers.  64. 

Fernow,  B.  E.,  Economics  of  Forestry, 
36  n.,  179  n. 

Fertilizers,  in  the  nursery,  104-106. 

Fertilizing,  for  nursery,  90  and  n.,  92. 

Fibre,  defined,  80,81 ;  strength  of,  82, 
And  see  Grain. 

Fields,  abandoned,  tree-planting  in, 
41. 

Fine-grained,  81. 

Fir,  alpine,  193. 

Fir,  amabilis.     See  Abies  amabilis- 

Fir,  Douglas.  See  Pseudotsuga  taxi- 
folia. 

Fir,  grand.     See  Abies  grandis. 

Fir,  lovely.     See  Abies  amabilis. 

Fir,  noble.     See  Abies  nobilis. 

Fir,  red,  195.  And  see  Abies  magni- 
fica. 

Fir,  white.  See  Abies  grandis^xA  A. 
concolor. 

Fir,  yellow,  199. 

Fire  cherry,  39. 

Fires  in  forests,  8. 

Firs,  species  of,  in  U.  S.,  189 ;  their 
distinguishing  feature,  189 ;  real 
economic  value  of,  198  ;  their  prob- 
able future,  198.  See  the  various 
species  under  Abies. 

Firs,  eastern.  See  Abies  balsamea  and 
A.fraseri. 

Firs,  western,  species  of,  191  and  n. 
And  see  Abies  amabilis,  A.  concolor, 
A.  grandis,  A.  magnijica,  A.  nobilis. 

Flat  sawing,  86. 

Floods,  caused  by  absence  of  forests,  8. 

Flowers,  in  tree-life,  63,  64 ;  "  per- 
fect," pistillate,  and  staminate,  63, 


374 


INDEX 


64.  And  see  Female  flowers  and 
Male  flowers. 

Forbes,  A  C,  Development  of  British 
Forestry,  quoted,  47  n. 

Forest,  history  of  an  average,  17  ff. ; 
when  plants  should  be  set  in,  121, 
122 ;  spacing  plants  in,  123^ 

Forest,  second-growth,  14 ;  need  and 
methods  of  increasing  productive- 
ness of,  15 ,  seldom  consists  of  origi- 
nal species,  18. 

Forest,  virgin,  area  of,  being  rapidly 
reduced,  14  ;  main  source  of  supply 
of  forest  products,  14 ;  possible  in- 
creased capacity  of,  14,  15;  need  of 
conservative  treatment  of,  15 ;  re- 
moval of  mature  trees  from,  15; 
selective  and  improvement  cutting 
in,  16;  different  species  of  trees  in, 
43,  44 ;  pure  and  mixed  stands  in, 
44. 

Forest  crown,  the,  33,  34. 

Forest  floor,  the,  defined,  32 ;  its  pro- 
per maintenance  of  great  import- 
ance, 32,  33. 

Forest  nursery.     See  Nursery,  forest. 

Forest  products,  essential  to  modern 
civilization,  8;  not  to  be  supplied 
by  other  countries,  9 ;  and  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  coal  supply,  10 ;  no 
possible  substitute  for,  10 ;  statistics 
of,  in  U.  S.,  for  1909,  10;  other 
statistics  of,  12;  great  sums  of 
money  used  in  exploiting,  12  ;  fore- 
cast of  future  cost  of,  127,  and  fu- 
ture price  of,  127,  128;  probable 
increased  demand  for,  128,  129; 
consumption  of,  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Canada,  128. 

Foresters,  differ  as  to  mingling  spe- 
cies, 45. 

Forestry,  practical,  importance  of,  4  ; 
a  science,  5  ;  neglect  of  study  of,  5, 
6 ;  principal  effort  in,  should  be  di- 
rected to  tree-growing,  6,  7  ;  conno- 
tation of  term,  15 ;  little  under- 
stood, though  a  simple  science,  15. 

Forestry  departments,  state,  114. 

Forests,  possibilities  of  conservation 
of,  3,  4 ;  present  rate  of  consump- 
tion of,  4  and  n. ;  danger  of  exhaus- 
tion of,  4,  5 ;  pressing  need  of  con- 
servation of,  5  ;  careless  destruction 
of,  6 ;  effect  of  presence  or  absence 
of,  on  water-courses,  8 ;  how  treated 
by  lumbermen  and  others,  8;  no 


seed  trees  left  in,  8 ;  destruction  of, 
usually  followed  by  fire,  8 ;  in  Can- 
ada and  Europe,  9 ;  in  U.  S.,  condi- 
tion of,  to-day,  compared  with  con- 
dition in  Germany  and  France  two 
centuries  ago,  13,  21 ;  treatment  of 
mature  and  immature  trees  in,  15, 
16;  selective  and  improvement 
cutting  in,  15,  16;  net  annual  reve- 
nue of  (national),  in  Europe  and 
U.  S.,  18  and  n. ;  and  increased  rain- 
fall, 31.  And  see  Forest,  second- 
growth.  Forest,  virgin.  Forest  pro- 
ducts, and  Trees. 

Forests,  mixed,  43^ 

France,  forests  in,  9,  13,  21 ;  success- 
ful reforestation  in,  13  ;  revenue  of 
national  forests  in,  l8  and  n. 

Fraxinus  americana  (white  ash),  258- 
262.  Cut  of  seedling,  opp.  64 ;  cut 
of  section,  opp.  72  ;  cut  of  planted 
trees,  opp.  96. 

Fraxinus  lanceolata  (green  ash),  263, 
264. 

Fraxinus  nigra  (black  ash),  266,  267. 

Fraxinus  oregona  (Oregon  ash),  355. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica  (red  ash),  262, 
263. 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata  (blue  ash), 
264-266. 

Fruit,  of  trees,  86. 

Fuel,  growth  of  trees  for,  58 ;  amount 
of  wood  used  for,  in  U.  S.,  58. 

Fuller,  Andrew  S.,  218. 

"  Fungus  of  the  cutting  bench." 
See  "  Damping-off." 

Gas,  probable  duration  of  supply  of, 
58. 

Germany,  forests  in,  9,  13,  21 ;  suc- 
cessful reforestation  in,  13. 

Germination,  in  tree-life,  65,  66 ;  how 
aided  in  nursery,  98,  99 ;  percent- 
age of,  for  26  species,  366. 

Giant  arborvitaB,  See  Thuya  pli- 
cata. 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  (honey  locust), 
323-325 ;  not  a  locust,  323. 

Grass,  on  forest  floor,  34 ;  planting 
trees  in,  41. 

Grain  of  wood,  irregularity  of  direc- 
tion of,  a  mystery,  76-78;  kinds  of 
irregularities  of,  76,  77;  meaning  of 
terra,  80,  81.  And  see  Close-, 
Coarse-,  Cross-,  Fine-,  and  Straight- 
grained. 


INDEX 


375 


Great  Britain,  condition  of  forests  in, 

9. 
Green,  Samuel  B.,  167. 
Ground,  preparation  of,  for  nursery, 

90-92. 
Growing  young   trees  in  a  nursery. 

See  Nursery. 
Gum,  black.     See  Nyssa  sylvatica. 
Gum,  blue,  349. 
Gum,  cotton,  339,  340. 
Gum,  red.     See  Liquidambar  styraci- 

flua. 
Gum,  sour,  339,  340. 
Gum,  sweet,  339,  341. 
Gum,  tupelo,  77.     And  see    Nyssa 

aquatica. 
Gums,  speciea  of,  338, 339.  See  under 

Nyssa. 

Hackmatack  (tamarack),  220. 

Hardwood,  in  lumbermen's  classifica- 
tion, 79,  80 ,  its  meaning  in  this 
book,  80. 

Harvesting,  proper  age  and  dimen- 
sions for,  53  ff. 

Heartwood,  formation  of,  72  ;  nature 
of,  73 ;  moisture  in,  82,  83. 

"Heeling-in,"  in  the  nursery,  108, 
109. 

Hemlock,  eastern.  See  Tsuga  cana- 
densis and  T  caroh'niana. 

Hemlock,  western.  See  Tsuga  hete- 
rophylla. 

Hemlock  bark,  tannic  acid  (tannin)  in, 
75,  203. 

Hemlocks,  the.  impending  exhaustion 
of,  12 ;  species  of,  indigenous  in 
U.  S.,  203 ;  general  characteristics 
of,  203;  tannin  in  bark  of,  203. 
See  species  under  Tsuga. 

Hesse,  revenue  of  national  forests  in, 
18  and  n. 

Hickories,  the,  species  of,  indigenous 
in  No.  America,  268,  269 ;  classes 
of,  in  commerce,  268 ;  use  of,  in 
carriage-work,  268,  and  for  smok- 
ing meat,  268  ;  characteristics  of, 
269.     See  species  under  Hicoria 

Hickory,  306. 

Hickory,  black,  268. 

Hickory,  mockemut.  See  Hicoria 
alba. 

Hickory,  pignut.  See  Hicoria  gla- 
bra. 

Hickory,  shagbark,  269,272.  And  see 
Hicoria  ooata. 


Hickory,  shellbark,  268.      And  see 

Hicoria  laciniosa. 
Hicoria  alba  (mockemut),  273,  274; 

many  names  of,  273. 
Hicoria  glabra  (pignut),  274,  275. 
Hicoria  laciniosa  (shellbark),  272,273. 
Hicoria  minima,  274. 
Hicoria  ovata  (shagback),  270-272. 
Hicoria  pecan,  269. 
Holmes,  O  W.,  The  Professor  at  the 

Breakfast-Table,  297. 
Homer,  260,  310. 
Honey  locust.     See  Gleditsia  triacan- 

thos. 
Humus,  what  it  is,  32 ;  its  utility  in 

fertilizing  soil,  32,   33.     And  see 

Muck, 

Immature  trees.     See  Trees. 

Improvement  cutting,  15,  16. 

India,  128. 

Indians,  and  the  sugar  pine,  149. 

"  Intolerant "     trees,      defined,     35 ; 

mingling  of,  with  tolerant,  45. 
Investment  in  forests,  when  interest 

on,  exceeds  value  of  accretion,  56, 

57. 
Irrigation  in  forest  nursery,  100,  101. 
Italians,  and  the  sugar  pine,  149. 
Italy,  revenue  of  national  forests  in, 

18  n. 

Japan,  128. 

Juglans  cinerea  (butternut),  317,  318. 

Juglans  nigra  (black  walnut),  313- 
316. 

Junipers,  wrongly  called  cedars,  207 ; 
the  most  widely  distributed  species 
of  tree  in  America,  207 ;  only  one 
variety  valuable  as  timber  tree, 
207. 

Juniperus  virginiana  (red  cedar),  207, 
208. 

Kainit  (fertilizer),  106. 
King-nut,  272. 

Land,  once  wooded,  proper  field  for 
reforestation,  16;  four  classes  of, 
subject  to  reforestation,  38-41. 

Larch,  European.  See  Larix  euro- 
pcFa. 

Larch,  western.  See  Larix  occideti' 
talis. 

Larches,  species  of,  219. 

Larix  europcea  (European  larch),  223- 


376 


INDEX 


225 ;  much  used  for  posta  and  tele- 
graph poles,  223,  224. 

Larix  laricina  (tamarack),  219-221. 

Larix  occidentalis,  221,  222. 

Leaf,  development  of,  in  tree-life, 
68  ff. ;  venation  of,  68 ;  skin  of, 
68 ;  stomata,  69,  70. 

Life-history  of  a  tree,  6Sff. 

Light,  essential  to  tree-growth,  35 ; 
all  trees  do  not  require  equal 
amount  of,  35  ;  tolerant  and  intol- 
erant trees,  35;  all  trees  require 
more,  in  old  age,  36;  essential  to 
functioning  of  stomata,  70 ;  struggle 
of  stems  for,  71. 

Linden,  European  name  for  bass- 
wood,  302. 

Liquidambar  styraciflua  (red  gum), 
34 1-343;  not  really  a  gum,  338,  341. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  (yellow  pop- 
lar, or  tulip-tree),  283-285 ;  next  to 
white  pine  in  value  among  soft- 
woods, 285. 

Live  oak,  232. 

Locust.     See  Eohinia  pseudacacia. 

Locust,  honey.  See  Gleditsia  triacan- 
thos. 

Lumber,  table  of  amounts  of,  cut 
from  various  species  in  U.  S.,  in 
1909,  11;  waste  in  cutting,  55; 
character  and  quality  of,  how  af- 
fected by  age  and  size  of  trees,  56. 

Lumber,  pine,  vast  quantity  of  man- 
ufactured in  U.  S.,  133. 

Lumbermen,  their  inaccurate  use  of 
the  terms  hardwood  and  softwood, 
79, 80. 

Magnolia  acuminata  (cucumber),  326, 

327  ;  the  only  species  of  commercial 

value,  326. 
Male  flowers,  63,  64. 
Maple,  bigleaf,  354. 
Maple,  black.     See  Acer  nigrum. 
Maple,  broadleaf,  276.    And  see  Acer 

macrophyllum. 
Maple,  curled,  278. 
Maple,  hard,  276. 
Maple,  Norway,  280. 
Maple,  Oregon,  276,  354. 
Maple,  red,  276.     And  see  Acer  ru- 

brum. 
Maple,  rock.     See  Acer  nigrum  and 

A.  saccharum. 
Maple,  scarlet.     See  Acer  rubrum. 
Maple,  silver,  276,  280.    And  see  Acer 


saccharinum. 

Maple,  soft,  276.  And  see  Acer  saC' 
charinum. 

Maple,  southern  hard,  48  n. 

Maple,  sugar,  153.  And  see  Acer 
saccharum. 

Maples,  the,  a  very  large  family,  and 
important  as  timber  trees,  276; 
hard  and  soft  species  of,  276.  See 
species  under  Acer. 

Mature  trees.    See  Trees. 

Maturity  in  tree-life,  the  period  of 
best  economic  development,  15. 

Medullary  rays,  described,  73,  74; 
decorative  importance  of,  85,  86; 
quarter-sawing,  86. 

"Mirrors,"  74. 

Mixed  stand.     See  Stand,  mixed. 

Mockernut  hickory.  See  Hicoria  alba. 

Moisture,  in  soil,  essential  to  tree- 
growth,  31,  32;  trees  require  less 
of,  than  farm  crops,  37 ;  drying  out, 
in  seasoning,  82,  83  ;  how  main- 
tained in  nursery  seed-beds,  98,  99 ; 
how  supplied  to  young  plants,  100, 
101. 

Muck,  beat  fertilizer  for  forest  nurs- 
ery, 90  n.,  105. 

Muir,  John,  Our  National  Parks, 
quoted,  146,  147. 

National  Conservation  Commission, 
58. 

Natural  range.     See  Range. 

Natural  resources,  not  inexhaustible, 
3  ;  need  of  conservation  of,  3,  4. 

Nature,  in  reforestation,  16, 17. 

Naval  stores,  134  n. 

New  York  Forest  Nursery.  103,  104. 

Nitrogen  in  soil,  comparative  amounts 
of,  required  by  trees  and  by  crops, 
36  and  n. 

Norway,  forests  in,  9,  128. 

Nurse  trees,  15,  47. 

Nursery,  growing  young  trees  in,  the 
best  method  of  artificial  reforest- 
ation, 28-30 ;  more  expensive  at 
first,  but  more  economical  at  last, 
30  ;  in  Saxony  and  Switzerland,  30. 

Nursery,  forest,  why  method  of  grow- 
ing trees  in,  is  most  successful,  87 
ff. ;  greater  size  and  vigor  of  trees 
so  grown,  87,  88  ;  best  location  of, 
89  ;  preparation  of  ground  for,  90- 
92 ;  sowing  seed  in,  92-97 ;  use  of 
screens  in,  97,  98,  99 ;  protecting 


INDEX 


377 


seeds  from  birds  in,  98  ;  aiding  ger- 
mination in,  98,  99  ;  protection  from 
bright  sunlight  in,  99 ;  care  and 
cultivation  of  plants  in,  100  ^ ; 
abundant  supply  of  water  essential, 
100  ;  surface  irrigation  in,  100,  101 ; 
pulverizing  surface  soil  in,  101 ;  pro- 
tection of  seedlings  in  winter  in, 
102-104 ;  best  fertilizers  for,  104- 
106  ;  thinning  out,  106 ;  removal  of 
plants  from,  106,  107,  109;  root- 
pruning  in,  107, 108 ;  "  heeling-in," 
108,  109. 

Nursery,  transplant,  defined,  89,  111; 
purpose  of,  111 ;  a  simple  afifair, 
113  ;  fertilization  and  preparation 
of,  113,  114  ;  cultivation  of,  114. 

Nut-bearing  trees.  See  Trees,  nut- 
bearing. 

Nysta  aquatica  (tupelo  gum),  340, 
341. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  (black  gum),  339, 
340;  known  by  diverse  names  in 
different  states,  339. 

Oak,  black.     See  Quercus  velutina. 

Oak,  burr.     See  Quercus  macrocarpa. 

Oak,  chestnut.     See  Quercus  prinus. 

Oak,  chinquapin.  See  Quercus  acu- 
minata. 

Oak,  cow.     See  Quercus  michauxii. 

Oak,  Garry.     See  Quercus  garryana. 

Oak,  mossycup.  See  Quercus  macro- 
carpa. 

Oak,  overcup.     See  Quercus  lyrata. 

Oak,  pin.     See  Quercus  palustris. 

Oak,  post.     See  Quercus  minor. 

Oak,  red.   See  Quercus  rubra. 

Oak,  rock.     See  Quercus  prinus. 

Oak,  scrub,  39. 

Oak,  southern  red.  See  Quercus  tex- 
ana. 

Oak,  Spanish.  See  Quercus  pagodce- 
folia. 

Oak,  swamp  white.  See  Quercus  pla- 
tanoides  and  Q.  lyrata. 

Oak,  tan.     See  Quercus  prinus. 

Oak,  tanbark.  See  Fasania  densi- 
flora. 

Oak,  valley  white.  See  Quercus  lo- 
bata. 

Oak,  white,  262.  And  see  Quercus 
alba. 

Oak,  yellow.     See  Quercus  acuminata. 

Oak  bark,  tannic  acid  in,  75. 

Oaks,  certain  species  of;  may  recur 


in  second  growth,  18 ;  number  of 
species  in  U.  S.,231;  division  of,  into 
classes,  231  and  n.,  232  ;  species  on 
Pacific  slope,  352-354.  See  species 
under  Quercus. 

Oaks,  red,  231,  247-257. 

Oaks,  white,  232,  246. 

"  Oh-neh-tah,"  203. 

"  Oo-soo-hoo-tah,"  210. 

Pacific  slope,  broadleaf  trees  of,  351- 

357. 
Pasania   densiflora    (tanbark    oak), 

353  ;  a  link  between  oak  and  chest' 

nut,  353. 
Pearlash,  278. 

Pennsylvania  Forest  Department,  41. 
Pennsylvania   Forest  Nxxrsery,    103, 

104. 
Pepperidge,  339. 
"  Perfect  "  flowers,  63,  64. 
Phosphoric  acid,  in  soil,  comparative 

amount  of,  required  by  trees  and 

by  crops,  36. 
Picea  canadensis  (white  spruce),  182 ; 

forms   great    bulk    of   forests    of 

Alaska  and  No.  Canada,  182. 
Picea       engelmanni       (Engelmann's 

spruce),  183-185. 
Ptcea  excelsa  (Norway  spruce),  185- 

188  ;  an  imported  tree,  185. 
Picea  rubens  (red  spruce),  179-182; 

wood  of,  used  mostly  for  pulp,  180, 

181. 
Picea  sitchensis  (tideland  spruce),  178, 

199. 
Pignut.     See  Hicoria  glabra. 
Pine,  bull.    See  Pinus  ponderosa. 
Pine,  cork,  140. 
Pine,  Cuban,  152.      And  see  Pinui 

heterophylla. 
Pine,  Eastern  white.     See  Pinus  strO' 

bus. 
Pine,  Georgia.     See  Pinus  palustris. 
Pine,  hazel,  339. 

Pine,  Jeffrey,     See  Pinus  jeffreyi. 
Pine,  Jersey.     See  Pinus  virginiana. 
Pine,  loblolly.     See  Pinus  tceda. 
Pine,  lodgepole.     See  Pinus  murray- 

ana. 
Pine,  longleaf.     See  Pinus  palustris. 
Pine,  northern.     See  Pinus  strobns. 
Pine,  Norway,  176.     And  see  Pinus 

resinosa. 
Pine,  nut.     See  Pinus  monophylla. 
Pine,  old-field.    See  Pinus  tceda. 


378 


INDEX 


Pine,  Oregon,  199,  206. 

Pine,  pinyon.    See  Pinus  monophylla. 

Pine,  pitch.     See  Pinus  rigida. 

Pine,  pumpkin,  140. 

Pine,  red.     See  Pinus  resinosa. 

Pine,  Scotch,     See  Pintis  sylvestris. 

Pine,  scrub.     See  Pinus  virginiana. 

Pine,  shortleaf,  48  n.    And  see  Pinus 

echinata. 
Pine,  slash.     See  Pinus  heterophylla. 
Pine,  spruce.     See  Pinus  strobus. 
Pine,  sugar,  170,  193,  196.     And  see 

Pinus  lambertiana. 
Pine,  swamp.    See  Pinus  heterophylla. 
Pine,  torch.     See  Pinus  tceda. 
Pine,  western  yellow.   See  Pinus  pon- 

derosa. 
Pine,  western  white.    See  Pinus  mon- 

ticola. 
Pine,  Weymouth.     See  Pinus  strobus. 
Pine,  white.     See  Pinus  strobus. 
Pine,  yellow.     See  Pinus  palustris. 
Pines,    different  species  of,  yielded 

one  half  of  lumber  cut  in  U.  S.  in 

1909,  10,  12  ;  importance  of,  from 

economic  and  industrial  standpoint, 

133  ;  all  species  of,  not  equally  val- 
Tiable,  133  ;  varieties  indigenous  in 
U.  S.,  133 ;  all  are  conifers,  133 ; 
Prof.  Sargent's  classification  of,  135. 

Pines,  hard,  described,  134  ;  resin  in, 
134. 

Pines,  pitch,  in  Prof.  Sargent's  classi- 
fication, 135. 

Pines,  soft,  practically  synonymous 
•with  white  pines,  134  ;  varieties  of, 
134. 

Pines,  white,  practically  synonymous 
with  soft  pines,  134  ;  varieties  of, 

134  ;  distinction  between,  and  yel- 
low pines,  134.  And  see  Pinus 
lambertiana,  P.  monticola,  P.  stro- 
bus. 

Pines,  yellow,    distinction    between, 

and  white  pines,  134;  species  of, 

134,  135. 
Pinus  echinata  (shortleaf  pine),  157- 

160 ;  sold  under  many  names,  157. 
Pinus  heterophylla  (Cuban  pine),  156, 

157. 
Pinus  jeffreyi,  170  and  n.,  173. 
Pinus  lambertiana  (sugar  pine),  146- 

149 ;  origin  of  its  common  name, 

146 ;  its  enemies,  149. 
Pinus  monophylla,  133. 
Pinus  monticola  (western  vrhite  pine), 


143-146  ;  similarity  of,  to  common 
white  pine  (strobus),  143,  144 ;  its 
future,  146. 

Pinus  murrayana  (lodgepole  pine), 
173-175. 

Pinus  palustris  (longleaf  pine),  150- 
155  ;  known  by  many  names,  150 ; 
its  future  unpromising,  155. 

Pinus  ponderosa  (western  yellow 
pine),  169-173 ;  known  by  many 
names,  169;  its  great  size,  170; 
199. 

Pinus  resinosa  (Norway  pine),  166- 
169;  resinosa  a  misnomer,  166; 
rapidly  disappearing  in  U.  S.,  166, 
167. 

Pinus  rigida  (pitch  pine),  163-166. 

Pinus  strobus  (white,  or  eastern  white, 
pine),  cut  of  second-growth,  opp. 
54 ;  cut  of  staminate  blossoms,  opp. 
64 ;  cut  of  seed-development,  opp. 
64;  cut  of  section,  opp.  72;  cut 
of  seedlings,  opp.  88 ;  cut  of  ten- 
year-old  planting,  opp.  136;  135- 
143. 

Pinus  sylvestris  (Scotch  pine),  175~ 
177;  an  important  timber  tree  in 
Europe,  175. 

Pinus  tceda  (loblolly,  or  old-field 
pine),  cut  of  section,  opp.  72 ;  161- 
163 ;  its  many  names,  161 ;  varieties 
of,  161. 

Pinus  virginiana  (scrub  pine),  166. 

Pistillate  flowers,  64. 

Pith,  73. 

Plain  sawing,  86. 

Plane,  oriental,  280,  328. 

Planting  in  hills,  a  method  of  artificial 
reforestation,  27,  28. 

Plants,  care  and  cultivation  of,  in 
nursery,  100  ff. ;  removal  of,  from 
nursery,  106,  107,  109,  121,  122; 
setting  in  the  forest,  109,  110,  121, 
122;  packing  for  shipment,  110; 
transplanting.  111  ff.;  furnished 
free  by  states,  114;  spacing,  in  the 
forest,  123  jT: 

Platanus  occidentalis  (sycamore  or 
buttonwood),  328-331 ;  fungus  dis- 
ease of,  331. 

Platanus  orientalis,  280,  328. 

Pollen,  64. 

Poplar,  bay,  339,  341. 

Poplar,  Carolina,  or  cottonwood,  cut 
of  section,  opp.  72 ;  332-337. 

Poplar,  necklace,  333. 


INDEX 


379 


Poplar,  white,  283. 

Poplar,  yellow  (tulip-tree).  See  Lir- 
iodendron  tulipi/era. 

Poplars,  and  cottonwoods,  confusion 
between,  332, 333 ;  on  Pacific  slope, 
.351. 

Populus  balsamifera  (balm  of  Gilead), 
332,  3:34,  337. 

Populus  deltoides  (cottonwood),  332- 
:337. 

Populus  grandidentata  (largetooth 
aspen),  332. 

Populus  heterophylla  Cswamp  cotton- 
wood),  332,  337. 

Populus  <remu/otrfes  (trembling  aspen), 
332. 

Potash,  in  soil,  comparative  amounts 
of,  required  by  trees  and  by  crops, 
36  and  n. 

Practical  Forestry.  See  Forestry. 

Prunus  serotina  (black  cherry),  291- 
295. 

Prussia,  revenue  of  national  forests 
in,  IS  and  n. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Douglas  fir,  or 
Douglas  spruce),  199-202;  import- 
ance of,  as  timber  tree,  199 ;  really 
a  "false  hemlock,"  199;  its  great 
size,  200. 

Pulp.  See  Wood-pulp. 

Pulverizing  the  soil  retards  evapora- 
tion, 101. 

Pure  stand.  See  Stand,  pure. 

Quarter-sawing,  86. 

Quercus  acuminata  (chinquapin  oak), 
245,  246. 

Quercus  alba  (white  oak),  232-237; 
the  most  important  of  broadleaf 
trees,  232 ;  methods  of  reproduc- 
tion of,  235-237.  I 

Quercus  garryana  (Garry  oak),  352, 
353. 

Quercus  lobata  (valley  white  oak),  352. 

Quercus  lyrnta  (overcup  oak),  239. 

Quercus  macrocarpa  (burr  oak),  241, 
242. 

Quercus  michauxii  (cow,  or  basket 
oak),  242-244. 

Quercus  minor  (post  oak),  244,  245. 

Quercus  pagodcefolia  (Spanish  oak), 
253,  254. 

Quercus  palustris  (pin  oak),  254- 
256. 

Quercus  platanoides  (swamp  white 
oak),  238,  239. 


Quercus  prinus  (chestnut  oak),  239- 
241. 

Quercus  rubra  (red  oak),  cut  of  sec- 
tion, opp.  72 ;  247-250. 

Quercus  texana  (southern  red  oak), 
25G,  257. 

Quercus  tinctorium,  252. 

Quercus  velutina  (black  oak),  251, 252. 

Rain,  methods  of  utilizing,  31. 

Rainfall,  influence  of  forests  on,  31. 

Range,  botanical,  50  ;  natural,  50. 

Redwood,  may  recur  in  second 
growth,  18;  199,228-230. 

Reforestation,  success  of,  in  France 
and  Germany,  13  ;  the  only  hope  of 
U.  S.,  13,  38;  defined,  16;  distinc- 
tion between  natural  and  artificial, 
16,  17  ;  significance  of  varying  need 
of  light  in,  35  ;  difficulties  of,  oSff. ; 
four  classes  of  land  on  which  it  must 
be  effected,  38-41 ;  should  be  begun 
at  once  where  forests  are  being  re- 
moved. 40,  41 ;  mingling  of  species 
in,43j7: 

Reforestation,  artificial,  requires  less 
area  to  be  devoted  to  tree-growing 
than  does  natural,  18  ;  various  pro- 
cesses of,  22  Jf. 

Reforestation,  natural,  effect  of  ero- 
sion in,  8,  9;  described,  16;  dis- 
cussed, ilff-;  requires  larger  area 
than  artificial,  18  ;  great  uncertain- 
ties connected  with,  20;  Nature's 
method,  but  more  likely  to  fail  than 
not,  20,  21 ;  not  to  be  depended  on, 
for  forests  of  U.S.,  21. 

Resin,  in  pines,  134  and  n.  ;  in  pitch 
pine,  Ifrl ;   in  Norway  pine,  166. 

Respiration  in  tree-life,  69. 

Rings,  annual.     See  Annual  rings. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  (locust),  319- 
322  ;  the  only  valuable  tree  reason- 
ably sure  to  reproduce  itself  by 
sprouts,  322. 

Root,  development  of,  in  tree-life,  65, 
66  ;  its  functions,  66,  67  ;  pruning 
of,  107,  108  ;  care  of,  in  transplant- 
ing, 109,  111,  114.  And  see  Tap- 
root. 

Roumania,  revenue  of  national  forests 
in,  18  n. 

Russia,  forests  in,  9 ;  revenue  of  na- 
tional forests  in,  18  n. ;  128. 

Sap,  supply  of,  depends  on  moisture, 


INDEX 


31 ;  function  of,  31 ;  circulation  of, 
in  tree-life,  67,  68  and  n.  ;  from 
sugar  maples,  278, 279;  from  birches, 
307,  308. 

Sapwood,  formation  of,  72  ;  nature  of, 
73 ;  moisture  in,  82,  83. 

Sargent,  Charles  S.,  his  classification 
of  pines,  135  ;  Manual  of  the  Trees 
of  No.  America,  14.5,  149,  182,  199, 
296,  345;  Silva  of  No.  America,  320. 

Sawing,  various  methods  of,  86.  And 
see  Bastard-sawing,  Flat-sawing, 
Plain-sawing,  Quarter-sawing. 

Saxony,  revenue  of  national  forests 
in,  18  and  n. ;  strip  seeding  in,  23; 
forest  nurseries  in,  30. 

Schlich,  Manual,  26. 

Screens,  in  the  nursery,  97,  98,  99. 

Seasoning,  82,  83. 

Second-growth  forest.  See  Forest, 
second-growth. 

Seed,  probable  failure  of,  to  produce 
trees  under  most  favorable  condi- 
tions, 19,  20;  fertile,  63,  64;  Na- 
ture's lavish  method  of  sowing,  64, 
65;  sowing  in  nursery,  92-97 
(broadcast,  93-95,  in  drills,  95- 
97) ;  treatment  of,  in  broadcast 
sowing,  94,  and  amount,  94,  95;  how 
protected,  97  ff. ;  how  sown  and 
cared  for  by  Nature,  115  ;  germin- 
ating power  of,  not  uniform,  115  n.; 
when  and  how  to  sow,  11.5-118; 
different  classes  of,  116;  statistics 
concerning,  367. 

Seed-bed,  88,  89. 

Seed-drills.     See  Drills. 

Seeding,  spot.     See  Spot  seeding. 

Seeding,  strip.     See  Strip  seeding. 

Seedlings,  89  ;  protection  of,  in  winter, 
102-104 ;  of  different  species,  aver- 
age height  attained  by,  in  one  and 
two  years,  364,  365. 

Seeds,  winged,  64,  65. 

Selective  cutting,  15,  16. 

Sequoia  washingtoniana  (big  tree), 
226-228  ;  its  great  size,  227. 

Sequoia  weUingtonia  (redwood),  228- 
230 ;  its  great  size,  229 ;  probable 
early  exhaustion  of,  229. 

Sequoias,  species  of,  226;  the  only  pre- 
sent-day trees  that  existed  in  pre- 
historic times,  226. 

Shade,  proper  amount  of,  33,  34  ;  dis- 
tinction between  intolerant  and  tol- 
erant trees,  35. 


Shagbark      hickory.      See     Hicoria 

ovata. 

Shallow -rooted  trees,  119. 

Shellbark  hickory.  See  Hicoria  la- 
ciniosa. 

Shrinkage,  83,  84. 

"  Silver  Sheens,"  74. 

Size,  at  which  trees  should  be  har- 
vested, 53^ 

Sod,  planting  trees  in,  41. 

Softwood,  in  lumbermen's  language 
equivalent  to  conifers,  79,  but  not 
to  evergreens,  79  ;  judicially  deter- 
mined meaning  of  term,  80;  its 
meaning  in  this  book,  80. 

Soil,  products  of,  only  resources  cap- 
able of  conservation,  3,  4  moist- 
ure in,  essential  to  tree-growth, 
31  ;  utility  of  humus  in  retaining 
moisture  in,  32,  33 ;  do  forests 
impoverish  ?  36,  37.  And  see 
Ground. 

Sowing,  best  time  for,  114-118.  And 
see  Broadcast  sowing.  Nursery,  and 
Seeds. 

Spacing  trees,  in  the  forest,  123-125; 
should  be  as  uniform  as  possible, 
124. 

Spain,  revenue  of  national  forests  in, 
18_n. 

Species,  should  they  be  mingled  ?  43 
ff. ;  contest  for  supremacy  between, 
43,  44 ;  pure  and  mixed  stands, 
44  ;  principles  to  govern  mingling 
of,  44,  45. 

Spot  seeding,  a  method  of  artificial 
reforestation,  24,  25. 

Spring  wood.     See  Wood,  spring. 

Sprouts,  17,  18;  reproduction  of  lo- 
cust by,  .322. 

Spruce,  Douglas.  See  Pseudotsuga 
taxifolia. 

Spruce,  Engelmann's,  193.  And  see 
Picea  engelmanni. 

Spruce,  Norway.  See  Picea  ezcelsa. 

Spruce,  red.  See  Picea  rubens. 

Spruce,  Rocky  Mountain.  See  Picea 
engelmanni. 

Spruce,  tideland.  See  Picea  sitchensis. 

Spruce,  white.  See  Picea  canadensis. 

Spruce,  yellow,  199. 

Spruces,  the,  economically  important 
species  of,  178  ^  ;  increased  con- 
sumption of,  in  recent  years,  178 ; 
valuable  for  pulp  wood,  178 ;  rapid 
destruction  of  forests  in  U.  S.,  178; 


INDEX 


381 


in  commerce,  179.  See  species  under 

Picea. 
Squirrels,  as  seed-eaters,  149,  153,196. 
Sqiurrels,  Douglas,  149. 
Staminate  flowers,  63,  64. 
Stand,  mixed,  defined,  44. 
Stand,    pure,    defined,    44 ;    alleged 

merits  and  demerits  of,  46. 
Stem,   development  of,  in   tree4ife, 

68;  its  struggle  for  light,  71. 
Stomata   (in  leaf),  function   of,  69; 

must  have  light,  70. 
Straight-grained,  81,  82. 
Strength,  determines  value  of  wood 

for  many  purposes,  85. 
Strip  seeding,  a  method  of  artificial 

reforestation,  22-24,  25, 
Stripped  lands,  14. 
Stumpage,  129. 

Stumps,  area  of,  at  various  ages,  54. 
Sudworth,  George  B.,  Forest  Trees  of 

the  Pacijic  Slope,  143,  170  n.,  173, 

191  n.,  192.__35L 
Sugar  tree,  276. 
Sumac,  39. 

Summer  wood.  See  Wood,  summer. 
Sunlight,  protection  of  seedlings  from 

excess  of,  in  nursery,  99. 
Sweden,  revenue  of  national  forests 

in,  18  n. 
Switzerland,  revenue  of  national  for- 
ests in,  18  and  n. ;  forest  nurseries 

in,  30. 
Sycamore,  "  eaty  ' '  fibre  of,  77.    And 

see  Platanus  occidentalis. 

Tamarack.  See  Larix  laricina. 
Tannic  acid,  in  bark,  75,  203,  239. 
Tannin.  See  Tannic  acid. 
Tap-root,    presence    of,    adverse   to 

nursery-growth,  88;  defined,  119; 

function  of,  119;  varies  in  different 

species,  119 ;  unsuccessful  attempts 

to  deal  with,  119,  120;    107,  108, 

112. 
Tap-rooted  trees,  119. 
Taxodium  distichum    (bald   cypress), 

215-218. 
Texture,  an  element  of  value  in  wood, 

85. 
Thinning-out,  in  forest  nursery,  106 ; 

in  forest,  124. 
Thuya  occidentalis   Twhite  cedar,  or 

arborvitse),  210-212. 
Thuya  plicata  (giant  arborvitse),  210, 

213.  214. 


Tilia  americana  (basswood),  302-30.>. 

Tilia  heterophylla  (white  basswood), 
302-305. 

Tilia  pubescent  (downy  basswood), 
302-305. 

Timber  famine,  imminence  of,  9,  128; 
not  to  be  avferted  by  use  of  species 
heretofore  daemed  of  little  value, 
12,  13. 

Timber  trees,  divided  into  softwoods 
and  hardwoods,  79;  inaccuracy  of 
this  classification,  79. 

"  Tolerant ' '  trees,  defined,  35 ;  min- 
gling of,  with  intolerant,  45. 

Transplant  nursery.  See  Nursery, 
transplant. 

Transplanting  young  trees  from  the 
nursery,  28-30;  more  important 
for  conifers  than  for  broadleaf 
trees.  111,  112;  proper  time  for, 
112,  113. 

"Transplants,"  89. 

Tree-culture,  underlying  principlea 
of,  everywhere  the  same,  21. 

Tree-growing,  most  important  branch 
of  forestry  to-day,  6,  7,  13 ;  in 
reforestation,  11  ff.;  comparative 
areas  required  for  natural  and  arti- 
ficial methods,  18  ;  moisture  essen- 
tial to,  31 ;  in  nursery,  described, 
87^;  will  it  ever  be  profitable  in 
U.  S.  ?  126-129  ;  not  unless  eco- 
nomic  conditions  change,  126;  fore- 
cast of  future  cost  and  price  of 
products  of,  127,  128, 129.  And  see 
Tree-growth. 

Tree-growth,  light  essential  to,  35, 
but  not  in  unvarying  degree,35  ;  con- 
stituents of  soil  required  for,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  36 ;  demands  of,  on  soil, 
36  and  n.,  37;  methods  of  removing 
worthless  growth  from  lands  to  be 
reforested,  39,  40;  rate  of,  41; 
rapidity  of,  to  govern  decision 
as  to  mingling  species,  47 ;  ratio  of 
increase  in,  54.  And  see  Tree- 
growing. 

Tree-life,  laws  governing,  63^ 

Tree-planting,  necessity  of,  7 ;  in  tree- 
less regions,  51,  52. 

Treeless  regions  of  U.  S.,  51,  52 ;  spe- 
cies of  trees  planted  in,  51,  52. 

Trees,  thirty-one  species  of,  yielded 
99.9  per  cent  of  lumber  cut  in 
U.  S.  in  1909,  10, 11, 12;  considera- 
tions governing  removal  of,  in  re- 


INDEX 


forestation,  17,  IS;  refase  matter 
from,  3'2,  83  ;  all  species  of,  require 
more  light  in  old  age,  36 ;  relations 
between  different  species  of,  '^ff- ; 
should  they  be  mingled  ?  43  ^ ; 
significance  of  Tarying  rate  of 
growth  in,  47,  48  and  n. ;  selection 
of,  for  planting,  49-52 ;  majority 
of,  in  U.  S.,  worthless  for  timber, 
49;  natural  and  botanical  ranges 
of,  51,  52 ;  species  successfully 
planted  in  treeless  regions,  51,  52; 
when  to  harvest,  53  ff. ;  table  of  di- 
mensions of,  at  various  ages,  54; 
necessary  use  of,  for  fuel  and  farm 
purposes,  oSff.;  farm-lands  suitable 
for  growth  of,  59,  60 ;  may  be  made 
to  assume  desired  form,  63 ;  life- 
history  of,  63  _^. ;  when  to  plant,  in 
the  forest,  121,  122  ;  spacing,  in  the 
forest,  123  _^  And  see  Forest,  sec- 
ond-growth and  virgin,  Forests, 
Nursery.  Plants. 

Trees,  deciduous,  66. 

Trees,  immature,  15,  17,  19. 

Trees,  mature,  15,  17,  19. 

Trees,  nut-bearing,  methods  of  pro- 
pagating, 2S. 

Trees,  timber.     See  Timber  trees. 

Trojan  War,  the,  260. 

Tsuga  canadensis  (hemlock),  204,  205. 

Tsuga  caroliniana  (Carolina  hemlock), 
204,  206. 

Tsuga  heterophylla  (western  hem- 
lock), 205,  206;  sold  as  Oregon 
pine,  205. 

"  Tuck  Tuck,"  195. 

Tulip-tree.  See  Liriodendron  tulipi- 
fera. 

Turpentine,  in  pines,  134  and  n.,  140, 
155. 

Ulmus  americana  (white, orgray  elm), 
296-299. 

Ulmus  crassifolia  (cedar  elm),  301. 

Ulmus pubescens  (red,  or  slippery  elm), 
299. 

Ulmus  racemosa  (cork  elm),  300,  301. 

United  Sutes,  timber  famine  immi- 
nent in,  9,  10;  typical  of  world- 
conditions,  9  ;  revenue  of  national 
forests  in,  IS  and  n.  ;  tree-bearing 
and  treeless  regions  in,  49. 

United  States  Forest  Service,  155, 
294  n.,  305,  312,  846. 


Venation  of  leaf,  68. 

Veneers,  black  walnut  largely  used 

for,  314,  315, 
Virgin  forest.    See  Forest,  virgin. 

Walnut,  black,  272,  292,  314,  315, 
317,  318.     And  see  Juglans  nigra. 

Walnut,  "  Circassian,"  339,  341,  342. 

Walnut,  satin,  33S,  339. 

Walnut,  white,  318. 

Warping,  82,  84. 

Waste,  proportion  of,  in  cutting  lum- 
ber, 55 ;  divers  kinds  of,  55. 

Water,  mean  supply  of,  essential  for 
best  results,  31,  32 ;  utility  of  forest 
floor  in  retaining,  32. 

Water-courses,  effect  of  presence  or 
absence  of  forests  on,  8. 

Weeds,  as  a  hindrance  to  tree-growth, 
39,  40 ;  eradicating,  in  nursery,  92, 
93. 

Wliite  pine,  eastern.  See  Pinus  slro- 
bus. 

White  pine,  western.  See  Pinus  mon- 
ticola. 

White  wood  (tulip-tree).  See  Lirio- 
dendron tulipifera. 

"Winding"  fibre,  disadvantage  of, 
77  ;  is  it  hereditary  ?  78. 

Winged  seeds.     See  Seeds,  winged. 

Winter,  protection  of  seedlings  in, 
102-104. 

Wood,  manifold  uses  of,  10, 12 ;  large 
use  of,  for  fuel,  12  and  n.,  58; 
chemical  composition  of,  37 ;  in- 
crease of,  in  tree-life,  71-73 ;  an- 
nual rings,  71  ;  heartwood  and  sap- 
wood,  72,  73 ;  pith,  73 ;  medullary 
rays,  73,  74;  classification  of,  79, 
ff. ;  various  characteristics  of,  and 
their  bearing  on  its  value,  80-86. 

Wood,  spring,  71. 

Wood,  summer,  72. 

Wood  ashes,  unleached,  105,  106. 

Woodlot,  the,  58-62. 

Wood-pulp,  exportation  of,  prohib- 
ited in  parts  of  Canada,  9;  trees 
suited  for,  82  ;  value  of  spruces  for, 
178, 180. 

Wiirttemberg,  revenue  of  national 
forests  in,  IS  and  n. 

Yellow  pine,  western,  193,  206.  And 
see  Pinus  ponderosa. 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U    .    S    .   A 


